INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue II, February 2025
www.ijltemas.in Page 207
Demographic Effects on the Sources of Guidance Used by Nigerian
and UK Managers
Andrew A. Mogaji
1
, Peter B. Smith
2
1
Department of Psychology, Benue State University, P.M.B 97001, Nigeria
2
School of Psychology, University of Sussex, UK
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.14020023
Received: 14 February 2025; Accepted: 03 March 2025; Published: 15 March 2025
Abstract: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of demographic variables such as age, gender, organization size and
organization ownership on the sources of managerial guidance most often used by managers from Nigeria and UK. The guidance
sources included formal rules, unwritten rules, subordinates, specialists, co-workers, superior, own experience and widespread
beliefs as to what is right. Data were collected from 288 Nigerian and 141 UK managers. UK managers reported relying most
frequently on their own experience, Nigerian managers reported relying most strongly on formal rules. Hierarchical regressions
showed that reliance on formal rules, on superiors, on unwritten rules and on subordinates were significantly related to
demographic predictors. However, the demographic predictors of reliance on these sources differed between the two countries
and these differences are interpreted in terms of differences in national culture.
Keywords Sources of Guidance, Demographics, Cross Cultural Differences, Nigerian Managers, British Managers
I. Introduction
There are conflicting positions in the management literature concerning the relationship between culture and management
practices. Some researchers have focused on national differences in styles of management, while others have been concerned with
demographic effects occurring within single nations. Only rarely have both sources of variance been considered together.
The central element in any manager’s effectiveness is the ability to influence how events are treated, and thereby shape the
occurrences of future events. In handling work events, managers operate within a context of alternative sources of guidance,
many of which extend beyond the individual (Peterson & Smith, 2000; Smith & Peterson, 1988). Early studies using this
perspective have explored reported reliance by managers in USA, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Britain on a variety of possible
sources of guidance (Peterson et al. 1990; Peterson et al. 1996; Smith, Peterson & Wang, 1996). More recently, a larger scale
survey was completed across 53 nations (Smith, Peterson, Schwartz et al., 2002) showing wide differences in the sources of
guidance that were most favoured. The present study draws upon selected data from this survey. The eight sources specified in
the survey were selected on the basis of prior literature (Peterson & Smith, 2000) and of the expectation that they would be
among the most frequent sources in a wide variety of cultural contents.
The aim of this study is to test whether the demographic variables that predict the typical sources of guidance on which managers
rely vary between cultures. The basic model underpinning demography theory is due to Pfeffer (1983), who proposed that
demographic variables have an important causal influence on intervening processes, which in turn affect a variety of
organizational outcomes.
The influence of demographic effects can vary across nations because population and socio-cultural patterns vary. This variation
may be especially relevant to the use of demography theory to compare British and Nigerian managers. Beside obvious
differences in population attributes, differences in management practices and organizational characteristics and processes may
further affect the link between group demography and organizational outcomes.
II. Review of Literature
This study draws on the categorization theory of Tsui et al., (1992) and Pelled, Xin & Weiss (2001), who proposed that people
have a natural tendency to classify themselves and others into abstract social categories based on demographic attributes.
Researchers have noted an especially strong tendency to use both physically perceptible and culturally meaningful characteristics
(Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Recent evidence has shown the importance of the demographic composition of management teams for a
variety of phenomena including strategic change (Wiersema & Bantel, 1992) and organizational effectiveness
(Mitchels&Hambrick, 1992; Murray, 1989).
Studies from Anglo Nations: Weirsema & Bird (1993) found demographics to be significant predictors of turnover in top
management teams in both Japan and U.S. This study illustrates the way in which demographic effects may vary when applied to
new cultural contexts. The four characteristics of team members that Wiersema & Bird (1993) included in their study were age,
organizational tenure, team tenure and the prestige of the university attended. These are variables likely to have an important
causal influence on social dynamics (Pfeffer, 1983). Ryder (1965) posited that age is important because it influences a person’s
background and personal experience outside the employing organization. Long tenure is an indicator of experience in an
organization that is likely to influence top management team process, which may in turn affect their level of performance. This
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue II, February 2025
www.ijltemas.in Page 208
results in part from similar backgrounds and experience gained from tenure within the organization (Allen & Cohen, 1969).
Organizational tenure thus provides a frame of reference within which managers operate. Homogeneity in organizational tenure is
likely to lead to a similar interpretation of events (Allen & Cohen, 1969).
Davidmann (1995) found that the style of management relates to the size of the organization. Nadler & Tushman (1988) also
posited that size is an important attribute that shapes behaviours and decisions, while Park & Luo (2001) reported that size affects
a firm’s capability to handle the task environment. They also posited that managers in large organizations are less inclined to
adopt participative managerial attitudes, while those in smaller organizations are more flexible in decision-making. In general,
size is reported to affect organizational culture, ownership structure, and agency relationships (Aldrich, 1979). However, Orpen
(1994) found that work attitudes and performance of Australian managers in the private and public sectors were unaffected by the
size, shape, reward structure and climate of their organizations. Korac-Kakabadse, Korac-Kakabadse & Myers (1998) studied
large samples of managers in Australian public service and in the UK National Health Service and found no significant gender
differences in leadership characteristics. However, job and organizational tenure as well as senior management experience did
affect leadership philosophy. Elloy, Everett and Flynn (1995) showed that personal variables were less significant than situational
and outcome variables as predictors of job involvement. Of the personal or demographic variables studied, only gender showed a
significant correlation with job involvement.
Nigerian Studies. The studies cited above were almost all conducted within Anglo cultures such as USA, UK and Australia. We
next consider whether studies from Nigeria have provided similar indications. Mogaji (1997) found that demographic and
background factors were significantly but not strongly related to organizational commitment and the job involvement of Nigerian
managers. Akin-Ogundeji (1987) interviewed personnel and training managers in Nigerian manufacturing companies and
reported that demographic background influenced training practices and issues.
Eze (1988b) assessed the relative decision-making strengths of Nigerian managers. The sample included 165 managers selected
from foreign-owned companies, indigenous enterprises and the public sector. Using a locally developed questionnaire, he found
that participation in decision-making by Nigerians decreased from the public sector through indigenous to the foreign-owned
sector, showing that ownership, belongingness and commitment is higher in the private sector than in the public sector. However,
this may be due to the extrinsic motivations of Nigerians, who value material wealth more than any other thing. He contends that
the value attached to higher wages, incentives and tighter organizational control in the private sector has more effect in sustaining
a sense of belongingness, commitment and ownership in Nigerian managers than does participation in decision-making.
Mogaji (1994) investigated the effects of ethnocultural factors and organization ownership on decision-making among 10 Ibo and
10 Yoruba managers. The ethnocultural factor was measured by Eze’s (1978) Ethnic Group Affiliation Need Index (EGANI)
while the author’s own questionnaire was used to measure decision-making ability. The results showed that the Yorubas had
higher ethnic affiliation, while the Ibos scored higher on decision-making. The group affiliation scores of the Yoruba managers
increased from private to public organizations. Analyzing the test scores with a 2x2 factorial design, it was found that group
affiliation was not significantly influenced by the ethnocultural factor, organization type or by the interaction of the two variables.
In relation to decision-making, the influence of organization type was found to be significant. A further analysis showed that there
is a difference between the private and public organizations among the Ibos.
In a further Nigerian study, Eze (1988a) collected data from 72 managers from the foreign-owned private sector and 30 managers
from the indigenous private sector. They were asked to rate statements and concepts often used by Nigerian managers and leaders
in both private and public sectors during discussions and interviews. The results indicated that Nigerian leadership is
predominantly authoritarian. This sheds great light on managerial assumptions and beliefs in Nigeria. According to the author, the
two sectors included in this study, are known to provide more effective leadership than the public sector. However, he
recommended the inclusion of the public sector in a future study. According to him, further analyses of demographic variables
like age, gender, tenure, ethnic group and their effects on leadership in Nigeria are required.
We selected four of the basic demographic variables that are most relevant to organizational behaviour for inclusion in this
analysis: age, gender, organization size and organization ownership. Among other possible demographic variables that have been
included in prior studies, tenure is typically found to be correlated with age, and ethnicity has very different implications in
Nigeria and UK.
Hypothesis There will be significant influence of age, gender, organization size and organization ownership on the sources of
managerial guidance used by UK and Nigerian managers.
III. Method
The questionnaire measuring leader event management focuses upon eight work events that were selected as likely to occur from
time to time within the work of almost any manager in almost any type of organization. The events were described to respondents
in the following way:
Appointing a new subordinate in your department.
When one of your subordinates is doing consistently good work.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue II, February 2025
www.ijltemas.in Page 209
When one of your subordinates is doing consistently poor work.
When some of the machinery or equipment in your department seems to need replacement.
When another department does not provide the resources or support that you require.
When there are differing opinions within your department.
When you see the need to introduce new work procedures into your department.
When the time comes to evaluate the success of new work procedures.
Respondents were asked to indicate on five-point rating scales for each of these events, how much they relied on each of eight
sources of guidance. These were: one’s own experience and training, superiors, others at the same level as oneself, subordinates,
specialists, formal rules and procedures, informal rules about ‘how things are usually done around here’, and ‘beliefs which are
widespread in my country as to what is right’. Data for a given event from respondents who indicated that they had not
experienced that event recently were discarded. There were further questions concerning respondents’ demographic
circumstances.
Respondents were middle-level managers, working in a wide variety of organizations. Each manager’s handling of the eight
events was treated as an independent sampling of preferred ways of handling events. A mean score was therefore computed
across all eight events for each sources of guidance. Cronbach alpha scores showed high consistency across events in all countries
within the overall sample (Smith, Peterson, Schwartz et al., 2002). Scores derived from Likert-type rating scales are vulnerable to
the possibility of individual and cultural differences in questionnaire response bias. Estimates of response bias were therefore
computed for each individual and for each nation by averaging the reported reliance on all sources of guidance across all events.
Samples were not closely matched on some demographic criteria. The present study therefore reports separate analyses for each
country. Individual response bias was controlled. The relation between demographic criteria and reliance on guidance sources is
the focus of this analysis.
IV. Results
The means in Table 1 indicate that relative to UK, Nigeria managers report stronger reliance on formal rules and widespread
beliefs, while UK managers report stronger reliance on their own experience and training. The samples were relatively similar in
terms of age, gender and proportion working in government organizations. However, there were substantially more managers
working in multinational organizations in the UK sample.
Each of the remaining tables below shows the results of two stepwise regressions, one for each nation, and includes only those
variables that entered the regression equation at p<.05. Significant effects were obtained for reliance on four of the eight sources
of guidance.
Table 1. Adjusted Means with Standard Deviations
UK
Nigeria
N of respondents
141
288
Mean age
39.1
38.1
% Male
77
69
% in government organizations
24
27
% in multinationals
42
21
Reliance on formal rules
.18 (.72)
.45 (.52)
Reliance on unwritten rules
-.07 (.69)
-.11 (.51)
Reliance on subordinates
-.06 (.58)
-.13 (.46)
Reliance on specialists
-.55 (.59)
-25 (.50)
Reliance on co-workers
-.30 (.62)
-.12 (.37)
Reliance on superior
.40 (.68)
.21 (.48)
Reliance on own experience and training
.98 (.60)
.19 (.54)
Reliance on beliefs that are widespread in
my nation as to what is right
-.64 (.76)
-.27 (.70)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue II, February 2025
www.ijltemas.in Page 210
Table 2 shows that reliance of UK managers on subordinates was significantly greater for men. Among Nigerian managers
however, reliance on subordinates was stronger among women and among those employed by the government or by
multinationals.
Table 2. Relationship of Demographics to Reliance on Subordinates
Country
Predictor
R Square
Beta
Sig.
UK
Male
.030
.175
p<.05
Nigeria
Male
.026
-.151
p<.01
Government owned
.048
.193
p<.01
Multinational owned
.065
.137
p<.05
Table 3 shows that reliance on formal rules was stronger in government-owned organizations in the UK and among younger
managers in Nigeria.
Table 3. Relationship of Demographics to Reliance on Formal Rules
Predictor
R Square
Beta
Sig.
Government-owned
.037
.192
p<.05
Age
.049
-.222
p<.001
Table 4 shows that the reliance on superiors was higher in multinationals within UK and among male managers in Nigeria.
Table 4. Relationship of Demographics to Reliance on Superiors
Country
Predictor
R Square
Beta
Sig.
UK
Multinational ownership
.310
.175
p<.05
Nigeria
Male
.018
.134
p<.05
Table 5 shows that women managers in Nigeria relied more on unwritten rules, but no effects were detected in the UK
Table 5. Relationship of Demographics to Reliance on Unwritten Rules
Country
Predictor
R Square
Beta
Sig.
Nigeria
Male
.016
-.126
p<.05
V. Discussion
The results support the hypothesis: there are clear differences between the two samples in the association between demographic
indicators and reliance on various guidance sources. Organization size showed no significant effects in either sample, perhaps
because respondents are not always clear as to the size of the organization in which they work. In the case of the UK, men were
more likely to rely on their subordinates than women, those working for government organizations relied more on rules and those
working for multinationals relied more on their superiors. Age was not a significant predictor. In the more hierarchical context of
Nigeria, younger managers relied more on formal rules. Gender also had more marked effects in Nigeria, with men relying more
on their superiors but women relying on unwritten rules and subordinates. Reliance on subordinates was higher in government-
owned and multinational organizations, which implies that private firms were the most hierarchical.
These contrasts reflect the different circumstances of UK and Nigeria. In the UK, the personal attributes of age and gender were
less salient, at least within the somewhat smaller UK sample.The guidance sources that managers relied upon were more
dependent on the type of organizations in which they worked. In the more hierarchical context of Nigeria, age and gender were
clearly more significant. Organization type was also important, but the effect of working in a multinational organization differed
between the two samples. Multinationals in the UK are most typically owned by nations that are somewhat more hierarchical, so
that managers in UK multinationals would rely more on superiors. Multinationals in Nigeria are typically owned by nations that
are less hierarchical than Nigeria, so that managers in Nigerian multinationals are more participative.
VI. Conclusions
The results indicate that demographic effects on managerial behavior can only be meaningfully interpreted within the broader
cultural contexts in which they occur. The results also underline the importance of controlling for demographic variance when
making comparisons between managerial behaviour in different nations.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue II, February 2025
www.ijltemas.in Page 211
References
1. Akin-Ogundeji, O. (1987). Moving towards the future training practice in Africa: The Nigerian case, part 1. Journal of
European Industrial Training II, (7), 23-28
2. Aldrich, H.E. (1979). Organizations and Environments. Prentice-Hall:Englewood Cliffs, NJ
3. Allen,T. & Cohen, S. (1969). Information flow in research and development laboratories. Administrative Science
Quaterly,14,12-19
4. Davidmann, M. (1995). Style of Management and Leadership. http://www.solbaram.org
5. Elloy, D.F., Everett, J.E. & Flynn, W.R. (1995). Multidimensional mapping of the correlates of job
involvement.Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 27,(1),79-81
6. Eze, N. (1978). Ethnic Group Affiliation and work motivation in Third World Nations. Management in Nigeria, 14, (4),
8-23
7. Eze, N. (1988a). A Study of Leadership in Nigerian Organizations. ASCON Journal of Management, 7, (1&2), 95-102
8. Eze, N. (1988b). A Comparative Study of Decision-making Strengths, Sense of Ownership and Commitment in
Nigerian organizations. Nigeria Journal of Basic and Applied Psychology, 1, (2), 50-60
9. Korac –Kakabadse, A; Korac –Kakabadse, N. & Myers, A. (1998). Memographics and Leadership Philosophy:
Exploring Gender Differences, Journal of Management Development, 17, (5), 351-388
10. Mitchels, J. & Hambrick, D. (1992). Diversification posture and Top Management team Characteristics. Academy of
Management Journal, 35, 9-37
11. Mogaji, A.A. (1994). The Effects of Ethno-cultural differences on Decision-making among managers in some Nigerian
Organizations. Unpublished manuscript, Department of psychology, University of Lagos
12. Mogaji, A.A. (1997). Effects of organizational climate on employees’ commitment, involvement, and motivation
in some Nigerian manufacturing industries. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Lagos
13. Murray, A. (1989). Top Management group heterogeneity and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 10,125-
141
14. Nadler, D.A. & Tushman, M. (1988). Strategic organizational design. New York: Harper Collins
15. Orpen, C. (1998). Organizational Level as a Moderator of the Relationship between Perceived Political Climate and
Employees’ Work Attitudes. Psychological Reports, 72, (2), 769-770
16. Park, S.H. & Luo, Y. (2001). Guanxi and organizational dynamics: Organizational networking in Chinese firms.
Strategic Management Journal, 22,455-477
17. Pelled, L. H; Xin, K.R. & Weis, A.M. (2001). Noes como mi: Relational demography and in a Mexican production
facility. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 63-84
18. Peterson, M.F; Smith P.B; Misumi, J. & Bond, M.H. (1990). Personal reliance on alternative Event – Management
processes in four Countries. Group and Organization Studies, 15, 75-91
19. Peterson, M.F; Elliot, J.R; Bliese, P.D; & Radford, M.H.B. (1996). Profile analysis of sources of meaning reported
by U.S. and Japanese local government managers. In P. Bamberger, M. Erez & S. Bacharah (eds.), Research in the
Sociology of Organizations (pp. 91-147). Greenwich, CT: JAI
20. Peterson, M.F. & Smith, P.B. (2000). Meanings, Organizations & Culture: Using sources of meaning to make sense of
organizational events. In N. Ashkanasy, C.P.M. Wilderom & M.F. Peterson (eds.), Handbook of organizational culture
and climate (pp. 101-116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
21. Pfeffer, J. (1983). Organizational demography. In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational
Behaviour, Vol.5, 299-357, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press
22. Ryder, N.B. (1965). The cohort as a concept in the study of social change. American Sociological Review, 30, 843-861
23. Smith, P.B. & Peterson, M.F. (1988). Leadership, Organizations and Culture: An Event Management Model. London:
Sage
24. Smith, P.B; Peterson, M.F; & Wang, Z.M. (1996). The manager as mediator of alternative meanings: A pilot study
from China, the U.S.A. and U.K. Journal of International Business Studies, 27, 115-137
25. Smith, P.B; Peterson, M.F; Schwartz, S.H; Mogaji, A.A. & other co-authors (2002). Cultural values, sources of guidance
and their relevance to managerial behaviour: A 47-Nation Study. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 33, (2), 188-208
26. Tsui, A.S; Egan, T.D; & O’Reilly, C.A. (1992). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549-579
27. Wiersema, M. & Bantel, K. (1992). Top management, team demography and corporate strategic change. Academy of
Management Journal, 35, 91-121
28. Wiersema, M.F. & Bird, A. (1993). Organizational demography in Japanese firms: Group heterogeneity, individual
dissimilarity and top management team turnover, Academy of Management Journal, 5, (5), 966-1025