INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue X, October 2025

Climatic Observation Versus People Perception: A Case Study in

the Ampesekrom Community Near Nkawkaw in the Kwahu West

Municipal of Ghana.

Husein Chaani Dia-ul-haq^1*, George Frimpong Enchill², Francis Aforve³

^1*Department of Environmental Science, Andhra University, India

²Department of Environmental Management, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

³Department of Basic and Applied Sciences, Centre for Climate Change and Sustainability, Studies. University of Ghana,

Legon.

*Corresponding Authur

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51583/IJ L TEMAS.2025.1410000130

Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 08 November 2025; Published: 20 November 2025

Abstract: This research examines community perspectives on climate change in Ampesekrom, near Nkawkaw, situated in Ghana's

Eastern Region. The study employs a combined methodology that integrates meteorological data evaluation with community

questionnaires (involving 100 participants) to explore trends in climate variability and adaptation strategies within forest-reliant

communities. The meteorological evaluation identifies clear decade-by-decade temperature and precipitation trends across the

three-decade timeframe. Peak temperatures show a general upward trajectory with significant variations, whereas precipitation

patterns exhibit early decreases followed by more recent increases. A comparative evaluation with Abetifi, a neighbouring high-

altitude station (positioned at 601m elevation compared to Nkawkaw's 275m), demonstrates varying climate effects associated with

elevation and land use modifications. Precipitation patterns exhibited considerable variation, with significant decreases from the

initial to the middle decade (roughly 15-25% reduction) before experiencing modest recovery during the final decade. Survey results

indicated extensive recognition of climate change (98.5% confirmed that the climate is changing), accompanied by nuanced

comprehension of the anthropogenic factors contributing to environmental transformation. Participants pinpointed forest clearing,

farming intensification, vegetation burning, and urban development as key factors driving environmental transformation, revealing

their understanding of connections between human actions and climatic conditions. The study recommends implementing

community-focused educational programs that clarify climate change origins, indicators, and adaptation approaches through

understandable terminology and contextually relevant illustrations. Additionally, it suggests enhancing agricultural advisory

services that deliver technical guidance for climate adaptation, guaranteeing consistent interaction between agricultural advisors

and farming communities, while improving climate information accessibility to support better agricultural planning and risk

mitigation decisions.

Keywords: Climate Perception, Climate Change, Meteorological Observation, Indigenous Knowledge

I. Introduction

Climate change represents one of the most pressing challenges facing humanity in the 21st century, with disproportionate impacts

on vulnerable populations in developing countries (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2021). Sub-Saharan

Africa, despite contributing minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions, faces severe climate-related risks affecting agricultural

productivity, water resources, and livelihoods (Niang et al., 2014). Ghana, located in West Africa, has experienced observable

climatic shifts including increased temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events

(Asante & Amuakwa-Mensah, 2015).

Understanding the relationship between scientific climatological observations and community perceptions of climate change holds

significant implications for policy development and adaptation planning. While meteorological data provide objective

measurements of climatic parameters, local perceptions reflect lived experiences, traditional ecological knowledge, and immediate

environmental interactions.

The convergence or divergence between these two knowledge systems can inform more effective and culturally appropriate climate

interventions. Ghana has experienced measurable climatic changes over recent decades. Temperature records indicate a warming

trend of approximately 1°C since 1960, with projections suggesting further increases of 1.5-5.2°C by 2100, depending on emission

scenarios (Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation [MESTI], 2015). Rainfall patterns have become

increasingly variable, with some regions experiencing decreased annual totals while others face increased intensity but reduced

frequency of rainfall events (Owusu & Waylen, 2009).

The Eastern Region, where Ampesekrom is located, falls within the semi-deciduous forest zone characterized by bimodal rainfall

distribution with major and minor rainy seasons (Adu-Boahen et al., 2014). Historical analyses reveal shifts in rainfall onset and

cessation dates, posing challenges for rain-dependent agricultural systems (Akpalu et al., 2008). Ampesekrom, a predominantly

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agrarian community located approximately 15 kilometers from Nkawkaw in the Eastern Region of Ghana, provides an ideal setting

for examining climate change impacts on rural livelihoods. The community's economy depends primarily on rain-fed agriculture,

making residents particularly vulnerable to climatic variations (Fosu-Mensah et al., 2012). Understanding how local communities

perceive climate change is crucial for developing effective adaptation strategies, as perceptions influence decision-making processes

and adaptive behaviours (Mase et al., 2017).

While scientific evidence increasingly documents climate change through meteorological measurements, local communities often

develop their understanding of climatic shifts through lived experiences and traditional ecological knowledge (Pearce et al., 2015).

Discrepancies between scientific observations and local perceptions can lead to maladaptive responses, ineffective policy

interventions, and missed opportunities for integrating indigenous knowledge with scientific approaches (Risiro et al., 2012). In

Ampesekrom, anecdotal evidence suggests that farmers are altering their agricultural practices in response to perceived climate

change, yet no systematic study has examined whether these perceptions align with actual meteorological trends. The forest belt of

Ghana faces multiple concurrent stressors that exacerbate the impacts of climate change. Agricultural expansion, commercial

logging, fuel wood collection, and urbanization have substantially degraded forest cover, potentially amplifying local climate effects

through altered hydrological cycles and temperature regulation.

In African contexts, several studies have documented local perceptions of climate change. Maddison (2007) surveyed farmers across

11 African countries, finding widespread awareness of temperature increases and rainfall changes. However, Simelton et al. (2013)

demonstrated that perceived changes often diverge from meteorological records, with farmers emphasizing recent extreme events

over long-term trends.

However, the specific manifestations of these changes and their perception by local communities remain inadequately documented.

Also, Agriculture, the primary livelihood activity in the study area, demonstrates particular sensitivity to climate variability.

Changes in precipitation patterns, temperature extremes, and growing season length directly affect crop yields, food security, and

household incomes. Understanding farmer perceptions of these changes and their adaptive responses is crucial for designing

effective agricultural climate adaptation strategies.

Research on climate change perception has expanded significantly, revealing complex relationships between actual climatic changes

and human understanding (Weber, 2010). Psychological factors, including cognitive biases, personal experiences, and cultural

worldviews, influence how individuals interpret environmental changes (van der Linden, 2015).

This study aims to:



To analyze meteorological data to identify trends and variability in temperature and rainfall patterns.

To assess community awareness, understanding, and perceptions of climate change manifestations.

Document local perceptions of climate change among Ampesekrom community members.

This research contributes to the growing body of literature on climate change perception in rural African contexts, providing

empirical evidence from an underrepresented geographical area. The findings have practical implications for agricultural extension

services, climate adaptation programming, and policy formulation in rural Ghana. By identifying perception-observation gaps, this

study offers insights for designing more effective communication strategies that bridge scientific knowledge and local

understanding.

Ghana has been the focus of several studies examining climate perception observation relationships. Fosu-Mensah et al. (2012)

investigated farmers' perceptions in the Sekyedumase district, finding that 94% of respondents perceived increased temperatures

over the past 20 years, partially corroborated by meteorological data showing warming trends. However, perceived rainfall patterns

showed weaker correspondence with station records, particularly regarding seasonal distribution. Stanturf et al. (2011) examined

forest-dependent communities in Ghana's transition zone, documenting that local perceptions of climate change were strongly

influenced by deforestation and land-use changes, which communities often attributed to climatic shifts. Ghana has begun

experiencing tangible climate change impacts including elevated temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, increased flooding, tidal

waves, and coastal erosion (Quaittoo, 2014). These changes affect all sectors but particularly agriculture, water resources, and

coastal infrastructure. Forest degradation compounds climate impacts through altered local hydrology and temperature regulation.

The migration of herders from drought-affected northern regions to the south contributes to land degradation through overgrazing

and increased fire frequency, effectively extending savanna vegetation southward into forest zones.

Understanding public perceptions of climate change has emerged as a critical research area over recent decades (Kempton, 1991;

O'Connor et al., 1999; Leiserowitz, 2005, 2006; Brody et al., 2008; Agho et al., 2010). How people recognize, understand, and

respond to climate risks influences public support for climate policies, individual adaptation behaviors, and collective action on

mitigation. Cameron (2005) demonstrated that climate change perceptions significantly influence willingness to support climate

policies. Viscusi and Zeckhauser (2006) found that Americans with higher perceptions of future temperature increases expressed

greater willingness to payfor climate mitigation policies. These findings underscore the importance of understanding and potentially

influencing climate perceptions for advancing climate action.

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Research across sub-Saharan Africa consistently documents significant variations between meteorological records and farmer

perceptions. Maddison (2007) conducted a comprehensive survey across 11 African countries, finding that while farmers widely

perceive temperature increases and rainfall changes, these perceptions often exhibit spatial and temporal inconsistencies with

climate station data. The study revealed that 65% of farmers perceived decreased precipitation, though meteorological records

showed more complex patterns. In West Africa specifically, Mertz et al. (2009) demonstrated that Sahelian farmers' perceptions of

climate trends frequently aligned with broad directional changes but diverged regarding magnitude and timing. Their research

emphasized that perception-observation gaps do not indicate "incorrect" local knowledge but rather reflect different observational

scales, relevant indicators, and the integration of climate factors with socioeconomic changes.

The study of climate perception versus observation draws heavily from several theoretical traditions. Social constructivism provides

a foundational understanding that human perception of environmental change is mediated through cultural, social, and experiential

filters (Berkes, 1999). Communities construct knowledge about climate through lived experiences, traditional knowledge systems,

and social learning processes that may diverge from scientific measurements (Agrawal, 1995). The Theory of Planned Behavior

(Ajzen, 1991) offers insights into how perceptions influence adaptive behaviours, suggesting that subjective assessments of climate

risks, regardless of their alignment with meteorological data, directly shape community responses. Additionally, the Local

Ecological Knowledge (LEK) framework recognizes that indigenous and local knowledge systems represent valid, though different,

epistemological approaches to understanding environmental change (Berkes et al., 2000).

Multiple factors contribute to discrepancies between climate perceptions and observations. Psychological research demonstrates

that availability heuristics lead individuals to overweight recent extreme events (Kahneman & Tversky, 1974), potentially

explaining why communities may perceive increased climate variability even when statistical trends are ambiguous. Weber (2010)

extended this work to environmental risk perception, showing that personal experience with extreme events shapes climate

perceptions more powerfully than statistical information. Socioeconomic factors significantly mediate climate perception. Deressa

et al. (2011) found in Ethiopia that education level, farming experience, and access to climate information influenced perception

accuracy. However, Roncoli et al. (2009) cautioned against interpreting formal education as automatically improving perception

accuracy, noting that indigenous knowledge systems often capture climate nuances missed by sparse meteorological networks. In

Ghana, traditional environmental knowledge has been documented by several researchers. Gyampoh et al. (2009) recorded

indigenous climate indicators in Ghana's forest-savanna transition zone, including flowering patterns of specific trees, migration

timing of birds, and changes in water body levels. Communities demonstrated detailed ecological observations that, while not

meteorologically standardized, provided actionable climate information.

Gender significantly influences climate perception and knowledge. Kristjanson et al. (2017) documented in East Africa that men

and women often perceive different aspects of climate change due to gendered livelihood activities and decision-making roles.

Women, more engaged in water collection and small-scale agriculture, frequentlyshowed greater sensitivityto precipitation changes

and water availability. Carr and Thompson (2014) emphasized that aggregating community perceptions without attention to

gendered knowledge can obscure important insights and reinforce power inequalities. Their research suggested that women's

climate observations, though sometimes marginalized in community discussions, often align closely with localized impacts

measured through agricultural and water data. The relationship between climate information access and perception accuracy

presents complex findings. Patt and Gwata (2002) found in Zimbabwe that access to seasonal forecasts did not necessarily improve

perception accuracy or agricultural decision-making, due to issues of trust, relevance, and integration with existing knowledge

systems.

Despite substantial research, several gaps remain relevant to the Ampesekrom context. Few studies have focused specifically on

Ghana's Eastern Region, where distinct climatic, topographic, and socioeconomic conditions may produce unique perception-

observation relationships. The Nkawkaw area's position in the transition between forest and savanna zones creates particular climate

sensitivities poorly documented in existing literature. Additionally, most studies employ cross-sectional designs that capture

perceptions at single time points. Longitudinal research tracking how perceptions evolve in relation to observed climate trends

remains limited, particularly in West African contexts.

II. Materials and Methods

Study Area and Size

Ampesekrom is located approximately 6 kilometers east of Nkawkaw in the Kwahu West Municipality of Ghana's Eastern Region.

The district represents one of the newly created administrative units established to enhance local governance and development.

Geographically, Kwahu West is situated between latitudes 6°30' and 7°15' North and longitudes 1°00' West and 0°15' East,

encompassing approximately 414 square kilometers. Nkawkaw, the municipal capital, lies approximately 241 kilometers northwest

of Accra, Ghana's national capital, making it accessible yet distinctly rural in character. The municipality exhibits diverse

topography, positioned at the foothills of the Kwahu Mountains, which rise prominently to the north and east. The district is bounded

by several neighbouring administrative units: Kwahu South District to the north, Asante Akim South District to the west, Fanteakwa

District to the east, and Birim North and Atiwa Districts to the south. This location positions the district within Ghana's transitional

forest zone, where forest ecosystems transition toward savanna vegetation to the north.

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Figure 1: Map of the study area.

Climate and Vegetation

Kwahu West Municipal experiences a wet semi-equatorial climate characterized by bimodal rainfall distribution, a pattern typical

of Ghana's forest and transitional zones. The primary rainy season occurs from May to August, followed by a shorter rainy season

from September to October. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1,700 and 2,000 millimetres, providing substantial moisture

for agricultural activities and forest ecosystem maintenance. Relative humidity varies seasonally, ranging between 75% and 80%

during rainy seasons, creating conditions favourable for agriculture but also conducive to certain agricultural pests and diseases.

Mean monthly temperatures exhibit seasonal patterns, reaching highs of approximately 30°C during the hot dry season (March-

April) and declining to approximately 26°C during the major rainy season (August).The district's climate is influenced by two

principal air masses: the tropical maritime (mT) air mass originating from the Atlantic Ocean, bringing moisture during rainy

seasons; and the tropical continental (cT) air mass from the Sahara Desert, creating hot, dry conditions during the Harmattan season

(November-March). The seasonal migration of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) drives these air mass movements,

producing the characteristic bimodal rainfall pattern. Vegetation in Kwahu West District belongs to the semi-deciduous forest zone,

specifically the Antiaris-Chlorophora association. This forest type is characterized by dense canopy cover comprising economically

valuable timber species including Odum (Milicia excelsa), Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), Mahogany (Khaya species),

Cinderella (Cinderella erythrophlei), Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), and Sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum). The forest structure

exhibits three distinct layers: an upper canopy reaching 30-40 meters, a middle canopy of 15-25 meters, and an understory layer.

Many species in the upper and middle layers display deciduous characteristics, shedding leaves during the dry season (November-

March) as a water conservation strategy. Unfortunately, extensive human activities including commercial logging, subsistence

agriculture, fuelwood collection, and bush burning have substantially degraded virgin forest cover. Much of the original climax

vegetation has been replaced by secondary forest and bush, representing significantly altered ecosystem structure and composition.

Three forest reserves persist in the district: Kade Bepo, Nkawanda, and a third reserve, collectively covering approximately 15,460

hectares or 171.56 square kilometers.

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Research Design

This study employed a mixed-methods research design integrating quantitative meteorological data analysis with qualitative and

quantitative survey approaches. The triangulation of multiple data sources enhances research validity by enabling cross-verification

of findings and providing complementary perspectives on climate change manifestations and community responses.



The research design incorporated three principal components:

Quantitative climatological analysis: Time series analysis of meteorological parameters (temperature, rainfall, relative

humidity, sunshine hours) spanning 30 years (1984-2013)



Community survey: Structured questionnaire administration to assess climate change awareness, perceptions, impacts, and

adaptation strategies

Comparative analysis: Integration of meteorological observations with community perceptions to identify convergence and

divergence

This design addresses both descriptive and analytical objectives, documenting what climate changes have occurred while examining

how communities perceive and respond to these changes. The comparative component between Nkawkaw adds spatial dimension

to the analysis, revealing how local topography and land use influence climate manifestations.

Data Sources

Both Primary and Secondary Data were used on Ampesekrom community using structured questionnaires addressing: Demographic

and Socioeconomic Characteristics (gender, age, occupation, education), Climate change awareness and understanding, Perceived

changes in temperature, rainfall, and other environmental parameters etc. Secondary data included the monthly meteorological data

for Nkawkaw were obtained from the Ghana Meteorological Agency. The dataset includes: Maximum and minimum temperatures

(°C), Rainfall (mm), and Relative humidity (%) - limited availability

Sampling Technique and Sample Size

Simple random sampling was employed to select survey respondents, ensuring each community member had equal selection

probability and minimizing sampling bias. The sample size was determined using the formula:

n = N / [1 + N(α)²]

Where:



n = sample size

N = total population

α = margin of error (0.1 or 10%)

Given the community population (N = 536) and desired margin of error (α = 0.1):

n = 536 / [1 + 536(0.1)²] n = 536 / [1 + 536(0.01)] n = 536 / 3.36 n ≈ 160

However, due to practical constraints including respondent availability and time limitations, 100 questionnaires were successfully

administered and completed, representing approximately 64% of the total population. This sample size remains sufficient for

descriptive analysis and identifying dominant patterns within the community.

Data Collection Procedures & Data Analysis

Questionnaire Administration: The researcher personally administered questionnaires to ensure consistency in question delivery,

clarify ambiguities, and maximize response rates. Questionnaires incorporated both closed-ended questions (providing

predetermined response options) and open-ended questions (allowing respondents to express views in their own words).

Observation: Direct field observations supplemented questionnaire data, providing contextual information on environmental

conditions, agricultural practices, forest conditions, and community infrastructure. Observations were recorded through field notes

and photographs (where permitted).

Microsoft Excel was used for data organization, calculation of descriptive statistics, and graph generation. Trend lines were fitted

to identify overall patterns across the 30-year period. For each meteorological parameter, the following analyses were conducted:

Decadal mean values for each month, overall monthly means across all years. Questionnaire data were coded and entered into

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis. Analysis procedures included: Descriptive statistics: Frequencies,

percentages, and cross-tabulations for demographic variables and response patterns

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III. Results and Discussion

Temperature Trends in Nkawkaw

Analysis of 30-year temperature data reveals complex patterns with both long-term trends and decadal variability. The data were

analysed in three ten-year periods to identify shifts in temperature patterns over time.

Maximum Temperature

Mean monthly maximum temperatures for Nkawkaw demonstrate an overall increasing trend across the study period, with notable

inter-decadal variations. The first decade (1984-1993) established baseline temperature conditions, while the second decade (1994-

2003) showed elevated maximum temperatures across most months. The third decade (2004-2013) presents a mixed pattern, with

some months showing slight cooling compared to the second decade while others maintain elevated temperatures.

The annual temperature cycle exhibits predictable seasonal patterns, with peak maximum temperatures occurring during March-

April (reaching approximately 32-33°C) coinciding with the pre-monsoon hot dry season. Minimum maximum temperatures occur

during the major rainy season (July-August, approximately 28-29°C) when cloud cover and precipitation moderate temperatures.

Statistical analysis reveals that mean maximum temperature increased by approximately 0.8-1.2°C between the first and second

decades, with the most pronounced warming occurring during the dry season months (December-March). However, the third decade

shows evidence of stabilization or slight cooling, particularly during mid-year months. This pattern suggests complex interactions

between regional climate drivers, local land use changes, and natural climate variability.

The slight temperature decline in the most recent decade, despite continued global warming, may reflect several factors: increased

cloud cover from altered regional circulation patterns, local afforestation efforts that enhance evaporative cooling, or natural decadal

oscillations in regional climate. Further investigation with higher temporal resolution data would be needed to definitively attribute

these patterns.

Figure 1 Maximum Temperature trend

Figure 2 Maximum Temperature trend

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Minimum Temperature

Minimum temperature trends largely parallel maximum temperature patterns, showing overall warming across the 30-year period

with similar decadal variations. Mean monthly minimum temperatures range from approximately 20°C during the coolest months

(July-August) to 23-24°C during the warmest periods (March-April). The first to second decade transition showed clear warming

of minimum temperatures (approximately0.5-1.0°C), indicating reduced overnight cooling. This pattern is consistent with increased

atmospheric moisture and greenhouse gas concentrations, which reduce radiative heat loss at night. The third decade maintains

elevated minimum temperatures relative to the first decade, though with slight moderation compared to the second decade in some

months. Warming of minimum temperatures often exceeds maximum temperature warming in global datasets, a pattern partially

reflected in this local data. This asymmetric warming has significant implications for agriculture, as many crops require cool night

temperatures during critical growth stages. Elevated nighttime temperatures can reduce yields in crops such as rice and maize by

accelerating respiration rates and reducing net photosynthetic gain.

Figure 3 Minimum Temperature trend

Figure 4 Minimum Temperature trend

Rainfall Trends

Mean annual rainfall shows a notable declining trend from the first to second decade, with the first decade (1984-1993) experiencing

the highest rainfall totals. The second decade (1994-2003) represents the driest period, with reduced precipitation across most

months. The third decade (2004-2013) demonstrates partial recovery, with rainfall increasing compared to the second decade though

not fully returning to first decade levels. Monthly analysis reveals that rainfall reductions were most pronounced during the major

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

Forest conservation initiatives: Increased awareness and conservation efforts may enhance local moisture recycling through

evapotranspiration

Afforestation programs: Tree planting initiatives reported by community members could contribute to local rainfall

enhancement

Regional land use changes: Broader landscape modifications across the region may influence atmospheric moisture and

circulation patterns

However, increased rainfall also presents challenges, including flooding, soil erosion, crop waterlogging, and increased disease

pressure. Communities must develop adaptation strategies that address both drought and flood risks.

Community Perceptions of Climate Change

Demographic Characteristics

The survey sample (n =100) comprised 56% males (n=64) and 44% females (n=36), reflecting gender imbalances in household

decision-making and potentially in survey participation. Future research should ensure more balanced gender representation to

capture diverse climate perceptions and vulnerabilities. The observed gender skew likely reflects entrenched patriarchal structures

within the study community, where males predominantly occupy positions of authority in household decision-making processes.

This demographic pattern mirrors broader trends documented across rural agrarian societies in sub-Saharan Africa, where gender

norms frequently relegate women to subordinate roles in formal consultative processes, despite their substantial contributions to

agricultural production and climate adaptation strategies (Doss et al., 2018; Kristjanson et al., 2017). The underrepresentation of

women in the sample presents a significant methodological limitation, as gendered experiences of climate change impacts, adaptive

capacities, and vulnerability dimensions remain inadequately captured.

Climate Change Awareness

Virtually all respondents (98.5%) acknowledged that climate is changing, demonstrating widespread awareness of environmental

change in the community. This high awareness level contrasts with some western populations where climate change scepticism

remains significant, suggesting that populations directly experiencing climate impacts develop strong awareness regardless of

formal climate education. One responded said it used to rain from June to July each year when we were young but now it doesn’t

rain this time the weather keeps changing and it is causing a lot of problem. Most respondents attributed climate change primarily

to human activities rather than natural causes, demonstrating understanding of anthropogenic influence. Regarding temperature

changes, 67.6% of respondents (combining "strongly agree" 13.2% and "agree" 54.4%) perceive increasing temperatures, while

28.9% disagree and 4.4% express uncertainty. This majority perception of warming aligns broadly with meteorological observations

showing overall warming across the 30-year period, though the observational data show recent stabilization not captured in

perceptions. Respondents attributing temperature increases cited multiple causal factors:



Deforestation and forest clearing (most commonly cited)

Farm expansion and agricultural extensification

Bush burning for land clearing

Urbanization and increased construction

Reduced tree cover and shade

These causal explanations demonstrate sophisticated understanding of linkages between land use changes and local climate,

recognizing that human activities affect temperature conditions. Farmers particularly emphasized how forest loss has reduced shade

and increased heat in farming areas. The significant minority disagreeing with temperature increase (28.9%) may reflect several

factors: temporal focus on recent years showing stabilization, spatial variation in temperature changes within the community, or

different reference baselines for comparison. Some older respondents recalled specific hot years in the past, potentially perceiving

no increase when comparing to these extreme years rather than average conditions.

When asked whether climate change results from human or natural causes, 63% attributed it primarily to human activities while

37% considered it natural. One respondent said We are part of the problems regarding climate change in our environment, we keep

on cutting a lot of trees and polluting our environment with car tyres which even affect our health. This reveals substantial awareness

of anthropogenic influence, though a significant minority views climate change as a natural phenomenon beyond human control.

Rainfall Perceptions

Rainfall perceptions show stronger consensus than temperature perceptions, with 94.2% of respondents (combining "strongly agree"

47.1% and "agree" 47.1%) perceiving decreased rainfall in recent years. Only 4.4% disagree and 1.5% strongly disagree. This

strong perception of rainfall decrease aligns well with meteorological data showing rainfall recovery in the third decade (2004-

2013) compared to the dry second decade (1994-2003). One respondent said it doesn’t rain off late and it is affecting our crop.

Respondents' perceptions likely reflect their experiences over the past 10-15 years, corresponding to the third decade when rainfall

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increased compared to the previous decade. Respondents consistently expressed that a decrease in rainfall affects their farming

activities by: Reducing sufficient moisture for crop growth and affecting multiple cropping cycles

The strong emphasis on afforestation as a driver of increased rainfall demonstrates community understanding of forest-rainfall

relationships. Whether local afforestation actually drives rainfall increases remains scientifically uncertain, though forests do

contribute to moisture recycling. Regardless of causation, this belief may motivate continued tree planting efforts, providing co-

benefits even if rainfall attribution is oversimplified.

IV. Conclusion

Meteorological analysis revealed significant climate variability and change across the study period: Both maximum and minimum

temperatures demonstrated overall warming trends across the 30-year period, with increases of approximately 0.8-1.2°C for

maximum temperatures and 0.5-1.0°C for minimum temperatures between the first (1984-1993) and second (1994-2003) decades.

However, the third decade (2004-2013) showed evidence of stabilization or slight cooling compared to the second decade,

suggesting complex interactions between regional climate drivers and local factors.

Rainfall patterns showed marked variability, with a substantial decline from the first to second decade (approximately 15-25%

reduction) followed by partial recovery in the third decade. This pattern reflects broader West African climate variability while also

potentially indicating influences of local land use changes on precipitation. Systematic comparison between Nkawkaw (275m

elevation) and Abetifi (601m elevation, 13.9 km distant) revealed differential climate trends. While both locations showed

temperature increases, Nkawkaw experienced more pronounced warming, potentially reflecting greater urbanization and

deforestation impacts.

Survey findings demonstrated widespread climate change awareness (98.5% acknowledging climate is changing) with a

sophisticated understanding of human contributions to environmental change. Respondents identified deforestation, agricultural

expansion, bush burning, and urbanization as primary drivers of environmental change, demonstrating recognition of linkages

between human activities and climate conditions. Community perceptions aligned strongly with meteorological observations for

rainfall (94.2% perceiving increases, matching observed third-decade recovery) but showed partial alignment for temperature

(67.6% perceiving increases despite recent stabilization). This pattern reveals that communities develop accurate understandings of

climate parameters directly affecting their livelihoods through daily environmental interaction, while longer-term or subtler trends

may be less accurately perceived.

While climate change awareness is high, understanding of specific trends, future projections, and effective adaptations requires

enhancement. Recommended interventions include: Climate literacy programs: Develop community-based education initiatives

explaining climate change causes, manifestations, and adaptation strategies using accessible language and local examples.Extension

service enhancement: Strengthen agricultural extension services providing technical support for climate adaptation, ensuring regular

contact between extension agents and farming communities. Improving access to climate information enhances decision-making

for agriculture and risk management: Develop and disseminate seasonal rainfall forecasts, helping farmers make informed decisions

about planting timing, crop selection, and input investments. Ensure forecasts reach rural communities through radio, extension

agents, and community meetings, with an explanation of probabilistic information

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