INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue X, October 2025  
Evaluating the Relationship between Parental Emotional Attachment  
and Online Crime Victimisation: A Study of University Students in  
Kenya, A Case of Chuka University  
Kennedy Mwangangi Mutua, Lumadede Japheth (Ph.D.), Charles Mwirigi (Ph.D.)  
Department of Social Sciences, Tharaka University, Kenya  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1410000144  
Received: 28 October 2025; Accepted: 04 November 2025; Published: 22 November 2025  
Abstract: Online crime victimisation harms not only individuals but also the wider community by weakening trust and safety. This study  
looked at how parental emotional attachment influences the chances of online crime victimisation among university students at Chuka  
University in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya. The target population was 19650 students pursuing different courses in Chuka university.  
Participants were randomly sampled from the population after the pilot study which was conducted in Tharaka University. During the  
pilot study, the reliability of research instruments was measured (Cronbach Alpha of .87) and deemed valid to collect actual data. This  
study relied on the principles of Routine Activity Theory and Social Learning Theory. After seeking permission from relevant authorities  
such as Tharaka University Ethics Committee, NACOSTI and Chuka University management the researcher proceeded to collect the  
actual data from 155 students using questionnaires by physically visiting the lecture hall. After inferential data analysis the results showed  
strong links between weak parental bonds and higher vulnerability to online victimisation. Maternal attachment (ρ = .554, p < 0.01) and  
paternal attachment (ρ = .483, p < 0.01) both played important roles in shaping how safe or at-risk youths were online. In today’s world,  
digital technologies bring both opportunities and risks. The findings show that parental emotional support remains a strong shield even  
in an age where artificial intelligence, social media, and online platforms shape young people’s lives. By using technology in education,  
counselling, and law, society can build new ways to protect and guide youths. The study concludes that strengthening parental support,  
building emotional resilience, and encouraging self-control can lower the chances of online victimisation. At the same time, digital tools  
such as online safety training, mental health support apps, and technology-informed laws can help create safer spaces. Working together,  
parents, teachers, and policymakers can use these tools to protect young people and support sustainable development in line with the  
wider goal of building safer and more inclusive societies.  
I. Introduction  
Online crime victimisation involves the use of Information Communication Technologies to carry out a series of acts intended to harm a  
person who cannot defend himself or herself and in some occasions the perpetrators may end up harming themselves (Piotrowski, 2012).  
Social media forums engage people from different diversities with immense anonymity which makes many youths hesitant to report in  
case they experience those unacceptable and undesirable behaviours to their parents and guardians (Cassidy, Jackson & Brown, 2009).  
Internet anonymity leads to vulnerability of youths as it creates an illegitimate use of social media to perpetuate sexual harassment,  
financial frauds, sexual solicitations and cyberbullying which in return intensifies with continued access to the internet (Besley, 2006).  
Online crime victimisation has posed a serious danger to most youths’ wellbeing. Youths who fall victim to online crimes are usually  
affected either psychologically or emotionally, which at times may even lead to serious emotional implications such as suicidal ideations,  
violence and even deaths. In the African continent, especially Kenya there are few studies which have studied behavioural and emotional  
risk factors of online crime victimisation among the youths especially those in institutions of higher learning as most have focused on  
surveying numbers of youths victimised or ways in which they were victimised. This research study sought to fill this knowledge gap by  
addressing behavioural factors such as self- control and antisocial attitudes and emotional risk factors of online crime victimisation like  
stress and depression using a case of youths in Chuka University, Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya.  
II. Literature Review  
Parental bonding, according to Choi (2017), is the close emotional connection that develops between a parent and their child. It might be  
to do with the indescribable sensation of lavishing their child with love and care. The link eventually develops into a relationship where  
the child and his or her parents share similar feelings as the child gets older. As a consequence, how caregivers respond to their children's  
everyday interactions and pursuits may have an effect on their mental health. According to the findings of Okesola & Adeta (2013), the  
vast majority of youths who spend more time away from their family or friends or who rarely interact with them spend the majority of  
their time online amusing themselves or forming new friendships. According to Okesola and Adeta (2013), youths who have a weak  
relationship with their parents, particularly during their early years, are more likely to become victims of cyberbullying if they develop a  
computer network addiction. A number of variables, such as the need for affection, tenderness, and a sense of belonging, could motivate  
young people with low levels of attachment to their parents to spend more time on social media, which over time may result in social  
media addiction and raise the risk of being victimised (Oksanen et al, 2021).  
Ybarra and Mitchell (2004) discovered that most youth who participate in cyberbullying enjoyed low levels of connection to their families.  
A lack of parental protection and care, especially in the early stages of infancy, may be the cause of the lack of trust, affection, and  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue X, October 2025  
closeness that the majority of cyberbullies display, according to their claims. Young people who spend little time with their parents may  
not receive the safety and care they need from their parents, which can lead to a long-lasting separation. Accordingly, reactive attachment  
disorder is an emotional disorder that can strike children as early as infancy or as late as middle childhood or adolescent. These psychiatric  
problems might develop from caregivers exposing their children to major flaws in their parenting style. Insufficient care and protection,  
lack of monitoring, a lack of basic necessities, fragmented families, solo parenting, violent homes, or households associated with alcohol  
and drug abuse are just a few instances of parental failures in child rearing (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2004). As a result of these poor home  
situations, children grow up with a lack of healthy emotional attachment from their parents, which may lead to an increased need to spend  
more time where they feel desired, notably on social media.  
III. Methodology  
This research adopted a Correlational method approach. Correlational approach involved collecting both quantitative data and qualitative  
data of both the independent variables and dependent variables. It was helpful as it helped the researcher to assess how one variable  
predicted the other and the strength and direction of their relationship. The study was done in Chuka University located in Chuka  
Igambang’ombe constituency in the Eastern slopes of Mt Kenya, Kenya. It is about 55 kilometres South of Meru town along Meru -  
Embu - Nairobi highway. This study area had been preferred for this study because it had the same characteristics as any other public  
university in Kenya at the time data was collected. The population of the Study was 19650 university students who studied in Chuka  
University when the research was carried out. Chuka University was selected purposely by the researcher. This research adopted a simple  
random sampling technique to select a sample size of 155 students from the accessible population in Chuka University.  
To determine the sample size Nassiuma (2000) formula was applied.  
n = NC2`  
C2 + (N – 1) e2  
Where: n= sample size, N= accessible population, c= coefficient of variance, e= standard error  
C=25% (Nassiuma 2000),  
e = 0.02 and  
N=19650  
n = 19650x 0.252  
0.252 + (19650 – 1) 0.022  
= 155 respondents  
In this study, data was collected using self-administered questionnaires, which were considered the most suitable tool for obtaining  
information from a relatively large sample within the available time. Pilot study on 10% of the sample size was conducted in Tharaka  
University in Tharaka-Nithi, Kenya. Cronbach Alpha Coefficient of .87 was calculated to test the reliability of the research instruments  
and establish whether data collection tools captured all the variables and elements under study and also find out if any adjustment was  
needed.  
Before collecting data, the researcher requested authorization from the Tharaka University Research Ethics Committee (TUREC). The  
next phase was to get a research permission from the National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI). In  
addition, the researcher obtained authorization from the Chuka administration by notifying them of the desire to do study at their  
university. Quantitative data was analysed through data validation, editing and coding in a SPSS software version 26. All participants in  
this study were engaged on informed consent by ensuring that they were well informed on the purpose of this research, its objectives,  
confidentiality of responses and benefits and risks of participating in the study.  
IV. Results and Discussions  
Respondent Response Rate- Out of 155 questionnaires distributed only 140 questionnaires were adequately responded translating to  
90.3% response rate. This showed a strong respondent outreach thus this meant that the collected data had less biasness, high credibility  
and representativeness and could be useful in making strong and more reliable insights about the relationship between both the  
independent variables and dependent variable.  
Distribution of Respondents by Age. Almost 80% of the respondents were aged between 19 and 24 years, showing a strong concentration  
in this age group. In contrast, only about 5% of participants were between 30 and 35 years old. The educational landscape of the  
respondents as shown in the graph above showed that the majority of them were pursuing diploma or had diploma qualification as they  
contributed to 64.3% of the sample.  
Distribution of Respondents by Family Structure- According to the analysed data, nearly half of the sample under study (49.3%) were  
from the traditional two-parent families followed closed by those from single parenthood (32.9%). A small portion of the respondents  
(6.4%) were from the extended families while another substantial portion (11.4%) came from the unconventional living set ups, maybe  
under guardianships, foster care, stepfamilies, or blended households  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue X, October 2025  
Period Respondents Stayed with Parents in a Year- The majority of respondents who participated in this study (60%) stayed with their  
parents between three to six months in a year followed by 18.6% who only stayed with their parents less than three months a year. Only  
a small percentage 16.4% stayed with their parents for longer time in a year while 5% never stayed with their parents.  
Frequency of Online Victimisation- Online bullying had the highest mean average with close to 86% respondents reporting to have  
been bullied online either often or very often. This means that nearly 9 out of every 10 youths were victims of online bullying. No  
respondent who reported to have never been bullied or to have been bullied sometimes meaning that youths were experiencing bullying  
online frequently.  
V. Parental Emotional Attachment and Online Victimization  
The Analysis of Maternal Emotional Attachment  
The study found that most respondents felt warmth, affection, and support from their mothers. About two-thirds felt emotionally  
supported, while 86.5% reported being helped when needed, showing trust and responsiveness at home. This maternal care builds self-  
esteem and problem-solving skills, which in turn reduces vulnerability to online scams and manipulations. Those who lacked such support  
were more likely to struggle with emotional regulation and turned to risky online behaviours like love bombing, oversharing, or seeking  
attention from strangers. A consistent pattern emerged where around 80–86% of respondents felt their mothers were affectionate,  
understood their worries, and encouraged independence. This maternal encouragement helped youths develop autonomy, digital  
resilience, and caution when interacting online. Autonomy and understanding empowered them to make safer decisions, set boundaries,  
and resist online exploitation. However, a significant minority about one in five did not feel empowered or understood, which left them  
vulnerable to isolation, secrecy, and unsafe digital interactions. Despite the strong presence of warmth and affection, excessive maternal  
control stood out as a paradox. Nearly 94% of respondents reported experiencing controlling behaviours, while 86.5% felt their privacy  
was often invaded. Although mothers may have intended this as protection, many youths perceived it as mistrust, leading them to hide  
apps or online activities. This secrecy increased exposure to online risks without adult guidance. Thus, maternal attachment was marked  
by both strong emotional support and controlling tendencies, shaping how youths navigated safety and risk in digital spaces.  
1
0
2
25  
3
22  
4
61  
5
32  
Mean  
3.71  
Sd  
1.013  
Spoke to me in a warm and friendly voice  
helped me as much as I needed  
Count  
Row  
0.0%  
17.9%  
15.7%  
43.6  
%
75  
53.6  
%
54  
38.6  
%
87  
62.1  
%
82  
58.6  
%
75  
53.6  
%
87  
62.1  
%
71  
50.7  
%
92  
22.9%  
Count  
Row  
0
19  
13.6%  
0
46  
32.9%  
4.06  
3.91  
4.04  
3.89  
4.13  
3.87  
4.09  
4.15  
4.33  
0.935  
1.175  
0.772  
0.903  
0.803  
0.855  
0.948  
0.719  
0.869  
0.0%  
0.0%  
Let me do those things I liked doing  
Seemed Not emotionally cold to me  
Count  
Row  
10  
7.1%  
9
16  
11.4%  
51  
36.4%  
6.4%  
Count  
Row  
0
10  
7.1%  
9
34  
24.3%  
0.0%  
6.4%  
Appeared to understand my problems and worries Count  
0
19  
8
31  
22.1%  
0.0%  
13.6 % 5.7%  
Was affectionate to me  
Count  
Row  
0
9
10  
7.1%  
46  
32.9%  
0.0%  
6.4%  
Liked me to make my own decisions  
My parent wanted me to grow up  
Tried to control everything I did  
Invaded my privacy  
Count  
Row  
0
17  
12.1%  
10  
7.1%  
26  
18.6%  
0.0%  
Count  
Row  
0
19  
13.6%  
0
50  
35.7%  
0.0%  
0.0%  
Count  
Row  
0
9
0
39  
27.9%  
0.0%  
6.4%  
0.0%  
65.7  
%
47  
Count  
0
9
10  
74  
Row N 0.0%  
%
6.4%  
7.1%  
33.6  
%
52.9%  
The table below shows the correlation between maternal emotional attachment and online crime victimization. From the analysed results,  
the spearman’s correlation co-efficient (ρ = .554) shows a moderate, positive and statistically significant relationship between the two  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue X, October 2025  
variables. This suggests that, as maternal emotional attachment decreases, the vulnerability of becoming a victim to online crimes  
increases. The p-value = .002 (< 0.01) confirms that this is not by chance - the results are significant at 99% confidence level. From the  
findings, youths reporting less closeness, warmth, communication and trust with mother figures tend to experience higher levels of online  
crime victimization.  
Correlations of Maternal Emotional Attachment and Online Victimization  
Correlations  
OC_AV  
MF_AV  
.554**  
.002  
140  
Spearman's rho  
OC_AV  
MF_AV  
Correlation Coefficient  
1.000  
.
Sig. (2-tailed)  
N
140  
.554**  
.002  
140  
Correlation Coefficient  
1.000  
.
Sig. (2-tailed)  
N
140  
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).  
The Analysis of Paternal Emotional Attachment  
The study showed that most respondents experienced warmth and support from their fathers, with 80% reporting warmth and four in five  
feeling supported. About two-thirds also felt affection, though nearly a quarter (24.3%) still reported emotional coldness. Many (77.9%)  
believed their fathers understood their worries, suggesting that paternal emotional attachment-built self-worth, resilience, and open  
communication, which helped protect youths from online manipulation and dependence on strangers.  
When it came to autonomy, most respondents felt their father’s encouraged independence, with 75–86% reporting some freedom, support  
to grow up, and decision-making encouragement. However, 13.6% said they were restricted and not encouraged to make their own  
choices. Such lack of autonomy was linked to secrecy, external approval seeking, and risky online behaviours, while healthy paternal  
encouragement supported responsibility and safer online decision making.  
Mean SD  
Statement  
1
2
3
4
5
Spoke to me in a warm  
and friendly voice  
helped me as much as I Count  
Count  
Row N % 0.0%  
0
27  
19.3%  
19  
13.6%  
8
5.7%  
34  
0
72  
51.4%  
51  
36.4%  
99  
70.7%  
45  
41  
29.3%  
63  
45.0%  
6
4.3%  
32  
3.91  
4.13  
3.49  
3.42  
4.03  
1.031  
1.017  
1.089  
1.241  
0.822  
0.0%  
7
5.0%  
10  
7.1%  
21  
15.0%  
24  
0
needed  
Row N % 0.0%  
Let me do those things I Count  
liked doing  
Seemed Not  
emotionally cold to me  
17  
Row N % 12.1%  
Count  
Row N % 5.7%  
8
24.3%  
7
32.1%  
67  
22.9%  
42  
Appeared to understand Count  
0
my problems and  
worries  
Row N % 0.0%  
5.0%  
17.1%  
47.9%  
30.0%  
Was affectionate to me  
Count  
Row N % 0.0%  
Count 19  
Row N % 13.6%  
Count  
Row N % 0.0%  
Count  
Row N % 6.4%  
Count  
Row N % 0.0%  
0
9
39  
27.9%  
48  
34.3%  
9
6.4%  
8
5.7%  
8
5.7%  
70  
50.0%  
30  
21.4%  
33  
23.6%  
74  
52.9%  
86  
61.4%  
22  
15.7%  
43  
30.7%  
80  
57.1%  
49  
35.0%  
37  
26.4%  
3.75  
3.56  
4.25  
4.1  
0.797  
1.299  
1.047  
0.991  
0.759  
6.4%  
0
0.0%  
18  
12.9%  
0
0.0%  
9
Liked me to make my  
own decisions  
My parent wanted me  
to grow up  
Tried to control  
everything I did  
0
9
Invaded my privacy  
0
4.08  
6.4%  
Despite signs of warmth and support, paternal control and privacy invasion were strikingly high. Nearly nine in ten respondents felt their  
fathers often controlled them and invaded their privacy, which created mistrust and rebellion. This pattern revealed a conflicted paternal  
attachment marked by both strong support and overbearing control, leading to anxious or avoidant tendencies among youths. A  
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Spearman’s correlation (ρ = 0.693, p < 0.001) confirmed a strong, significant relationship between weak paternal attachment and online  
victimisation, showing that father–child emotional bonds have a meaningful influence on online safety outcomes.  
Correlations of Paternal Emotional Attachment and Online Victimization  
OC_AV  
Spearman's rho  
FF_AV  
.693**  
.000  
140  
1.000  
.
OC_AV  
FF_AV  
Correlation Coefficient  
Sig. (2-tailed)  
N
Correlation Coefficient  
Sig. (2-tailed)  
N
1.000  
.
140  
.693**  
.000  
140  
140  
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).  
VI. Conclusions  
In summary, this study confirms that and parental factors play significant and interrelated roles in influencing youth susceptibility to  
online crime victimization. To effectively mitigate these risks, prevention and intervention efforts must integrate digital literacy programs  
with emotional self-awareness training and enhanced parental engagement. Only through such comprehensive approaches can the safety  
and resilience of youths in increasingly digital societies be strengthened. Universities, student leaders, and government organizations  
should promote digital discourse platforms, intergenerational talks, and parental participation initiatives. These programs promote  
emotional connection, minimize isolation, and re-establish trust, therefore protecting adolescents from harmful online habits.  
VII. Limitations and Future Research  
While this study has illuminated key aspects of online crime victimization among youths, it has also opened the door to new questions  
that demand scholarly attention. The complexity and evolving nature of the digital space call for deeper, more targeted inquiries in the  
following areas:  
1. To explore the behavioural and emotional consequences of online victimisation among youths, with particular focus on how these  
experiences shape psychological well-being, coping mechanisms, and risky online behaviours.  
2. To investigate the gender dynamics in online victimisation by examining differences in vulnerability, forms of victimisation, and  
coping strategies across gender identities.  
3. To evaluate the criminal justice system’s response to online victimisation, assessing its effectiveness in prevention, investigation,  
prosecution, and victim support.  
References  
1. Piotrowski, C., & Perdue, B., & Armstrong, T. (2012). Scholarly online database use in higher education. Education, 125, 443-445.  
2. Cassidy, W., Jackson, M. and Brown, K.N. (2009) ‘Out of The Mouths of Babes: Students Voice Their Opinions on Cyber-Bullying’,  
submitted to the International Journal of Qualitative Studies.  
3. Belsey, B. (2006) ‘Bullying.org: A Learning Journey’, Bulletin - Newfoundland and Labrador Teachers Association 49(4): 20.  
4. Choi K.-S., Lee J. R. (2017). Theoretical analysis of cyber-interpersonal violence victimisation and offending using cyber-routine  
activities theory. Computers in Human Behaviour, 73, 394–402.  
5. Okesola, FB and Adeta, AK, (2013). The Nature, Causes and Consequences of Cyber Crime in Tertiary Institutions in Zaria-Kaduna  
State, Nigeria. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 98-114. Retrieved online on 14th September, 2019.  
6. Matti Näsi, Pekka Räsänen, Markus Kaakinen, Teo Keipi, Atte Oksanen (2015): “Do routine activities help predict young adults’  
online harassment: A multi-nation study”, Institute of Criminology and Legal Policy, University of Helsinki, Vol 17, Issue 4  
7. Ybarra ML, Mitchell KJ. Online aggressor/targets, aggressors, and targets: a comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal  
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2004; 45:1308–1316.  
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