INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
Effect of Partial Replacement of Cement with Micro Silica on The  
Mechanical Properties of Concrete Before and After Exposure to  
Seawater  
1 Alexandra Amoakoa Prempeh, 2 Ing. Andrew Nii Nortey Dowuona, PE-GhIE, 3 Eng. Emmanuel  
Asiedu, IET  
1 Construction Management Student, Department of Building Technology Faculty of Built and Natural  
Environment, Takoradi Technical University, Ghana  
2,3 Lecturer, Department of Building Technology Faculty of Built and Natural Environment, Takoradi  
Technical University, Ghana  
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1411000118  
Received: 06 December 2025; Accepted: 15 December 2025; Published: 24 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Concrete structures in marine environments are vulnerable to chloride and sulphate attack, leading to corrosion  
and reduced mechanical performance. This study examines the effect of partially replacing cement with  
microsilica at 5 w%, 10 w%, and 15 w% on the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete before and after  
28 days of seawater exposure. Concrete mixes were designed with a ratio of 1:2:4 and a water/cement ratio of  
0.4. The inclusion of microsilica significantly enhanced compressive strength before exposure, with the optimum  
performance observed at 10 w% replacement, showing a 26.1% increase after seawater exposure. Conversely,  
tensile strength declined across all mixes following exposure, with reductions between 18.45% and 27.19%,  
attributed to the ingress of chloride and sulphate ions that weakened the interfacial transition zone. Despite this,  
microsilica-modified concretes retained higher residual tensile strength than the control mix. The findings  
indicate that microsilica improves the strength and durability of concrete exposed to marine environments,  
making it an effective supplementary cementitious material for sustainable coastal and offshore applications.  
Keywords: Microsilica, Seawater Exposure, Compressive Strength, Tensile Strength, Durability.  
INTRODUCTION  
Concrete used in marine and coastal environments is constantly subjected to aggressive chemical and physical  
conditions, which compromise its long-term performance (Li et al., 2023; Qu et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2017).  
The combined effects of chloride ingress, sulphate attack, and continuous wetting and drying cycles result in  
cracking, spalling, and corrosion of reinforcing steel (Zhang et al., 2022; Ting et al., 2020). These deterioration  
processes not only reduce structural capacity but also increase maintenance and repair costs, posing significant  
challenges for sustainable construction in such environments (Rincón et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2020; Diaferio &  
Varona, 2024). The need to improve the resistance of concrete to seawater attack has led to the incorporation of  
mineral admixtures known as supplementary cementitious materials (Miah et al., 2023; Park et al., 2021). These  
materials enhance the microstructure and chemical stability of concrete while partially substituting cement to  
reduce the environmental impact (Miah et al., 2023; Park et al., 2021). Among the various SCMs, microsilica  
(silica fume) has been recognised for its superior pozzolanic reactivity and ultra-fine particle size, which  
contribute to improved strength and durability characteristics (Kancharla et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2020; Li et  
al., 2018)  
Micro silica reacts with the calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to form additional calcium  
silicate hydrate (C–S–H), which is responsible for strength development (Trebukhin et al., 2024; Kashyap et al.,  
2023; Bach, 2019). This reaction not only refines the pore structure but also decreases the permeability of  
concrete, making it less susceptible to the penetration of chloride and sulphate ions (Khan & Abbas, 2021;  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1261  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
Chaudhary & Sinha, 2020). As a result, concrete containing micro silica typically exhibits higher compressive  
and tensile strengths and better long-term durability than conventional mixes (Sharaky et al., 2019; Li et al.,  
2018). In marine-exposed environments, such improvements are critical because they directly influence the  
structural integrity and service life of reinforced concrete elements (Lee et al., 2024; Melchers, 2020; Miah et  
al., 2023). Evaluating the performance of microsilica–modified concrete before and after exposure to seawater  
provides a clear understanding of its mechanical response under aggressive conditions (Park et al., 2021; Qiao  
et al., 2022; Sadati et al., 2017). The information obtained from such investigations supports the development of  
durable and sustainable concrete suitable for coastal, offshore, and port-related infrastructure where seawater  
exposure is inevitable (Kim et al., 2025; Margapuram et al., 2024; Georges et al., 2020; Qu et al., 2020; Malaga  
et al., 2019).  
OBJECTIVES  
The objective of this study was to assess the effect of partial replacement of cement with microsilica on the  
compressive and tensile strengths of concrete before and after exposure to seawater for 28 days.  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
Concrete deterioration in marine environments has been widely documented due to the aggressive action of  
chloride, sulphate, and magnesium ions, which cause cracking, expansion, and reinforcement corrosion (Huang  
et al., 2024; Kobayashi et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022; Esteban-Arranz et al., 2021; Qu et al.,  
2020). Chloride-induced corrosion is considered the most critical mechanism because it destroys the protective  
film on steel reinforcement (Mehta & Monteiro, 2014; Moffatt & Thomas, 2018). To enhance durability,  
supplementary cementitious materials, especially microsilica, are commonly incorporated into concrete  
(Mostofinejad et al., 2024a, 2024b; Garg et al., 2021). Due to the aggressive action of chloride, sulphate, and  
magnesium ions, which result in cracking, expansion, and reinforcement corrosion, concrete deterioration in  
marine environments has been extensively documented (Kobayashi et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Esteban-Arranz  
et al., 2021; Qu et al., 2020). Chloride-induced corrosion is considered the most critical mechanism because it  
destroys the protective film on steel reinforcement (Moffatt & Thomas, 2018; Mehta & Monteiro, 2014). To  
enhance durability, supplementary cementitious materials, especially microsilica, are commonly incorporated  
into concrete (Mostofinejad et al., 2024a, 2024b; Garg et al., 2021). Microsilica, composed mainly of amorphous  
SiO₂, refines pore structure by filling voids and producing a denser, less permeable matrix (Altawaiha et al.,  
2023; Luo et al., 2021; Li et al., 2018, 2020; Karim et al., 2019; Gerasimova & Berdysheva, 2018; Neville,  
2012). Through pozzolanic reaction, microsilica forms additional C–S–H that strengthens the matrix and  
increases chemical resistance (Liu et al., 2023; Geng & Zhang, 2023; Duque-Redondo et al., 2022; Janča et al.,  
2019; Maddalena et al., 2018).  
While excessive microsilica may decrease workability Suda and Rao (2020); Wu et al., (2019); Li et al. (2018),  
research indicates notable mechanical benefits at 5–15% replacement levels (Husain et al., 2021; Thomas &  
Siddique, 2011; Burhan et al., 2019). Studies on seawater exposure indicate that microsilica reduces chloride  
and sulphate ingress and improves long-term performance in saline environments (Dashti et al., 2025; Khan et  
al., 2023; Ali et al., 2022; Fu et al., 2020). Despite these advances, further comparative research assessing  
strength changes before and after seawater exposure is needed to guide the development of durable marine-grade  
concrete.  
MATERIALS AND METHODS  
MATERIALS  
The following materials were used in this study: GHACEM (42.5N) Portland composite cement Type-II, river  
sand from the seaside, quarry dust from JUSTMOH Construction Limited, crushed granite aggregates from  
JUSTMOH Construction Limited, micro silica from MC-BAUCHEMIE GHANA LTD, Accra, potable tap water  
from Takoradi Technical University, and natural seawater from the Teshie-Nungua coastal area. All these  
materials were obtained from reliable suppliers and local sources.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1262  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
Mix Proportion and Casting  
Using a concrete mixer, the dry ingredients were combined first, and then water was gradually added to create  
concrete mixes. Standard cube moulds (150mm) were oiled, concrete layers were poured, and a tamping rod was  
used to compact each layer and remove any remaining air. The specimens were cured for 7 days in a temperature-  
controlled tank after being demoulded 24 hours after casting. Four concrete mixes were prepared with 0 w%, 5  
w%, 10 w%, and 15 w% microsilica replacements using a concrete mixer. The mix ratio was 1: 2: 4 with a water-  
cement ratio of 0.4. The concrete mixes were designed to achieve a target strength grade (C30) using a standard  
method, such as the American Concrete Institute method ACI 211.1-91 standard guidelines.  
Seawater Exposure  
In the non-corrosive plastic tanks, the concrete specimens were submerged in a natural seawater solution. The  
specimens were continuously submerged to replicate submerged marine conditions, and the pH and ion  
concentration of the solution were routinely checked. The exposure duration was predetermined (28 days).  
XRF For Seawater  
Only oxides and ions known to affect concrete deterioration processes were mentioned. Magnesium and sulphate  
species appeared in significant quantities, indicating potential for magnesium-induced decalcification and  
sulphate attack. Alkali species (K⁺), reactive silica, and iron were also present, contributing to ASR susceptibility  
and corrosion risk in reinforced concrete exposed to seawater.  
Table 4.1 Seawater Chemical Constituents Relevant to Concrete Durability (XRF Results)  
Chemical / Ion  
Measured  
Form  
Concentration  
Significance to Concrete Durability  
Mg²⁺  
MgO / Mg  
MgO = 1.00 wt.% ; Mg = Promotes  
magnesium  
attack  
by  
5865–6953 ppm  
converting Ca(OH)₂ to brucite and  
decalcifying C–S–H.  
SO₄²⁻ / SO₃  
SO₄ / SO₃  
SO₄ = 0.28 wt.% ; SO₃ = Causes sulphate attack, leading to  
0.24 wt.%  
gypsum/ettringite  
expansion.  
formation  
and  
Ca²⁺  
K⁺  
CaO / Ca  
CaO = 0.22 wt.% ; Ca = Contributes to leaching and interacts  
1577–1630 ppm with Mg²⁺ during deterioration.  
K₂O / K  
K₂O = 0.087 wt.% ; K = Participates in alkali–silica reaction  
715–726 ppm (ASR) mechanisms.  
Si  
Silica  
/
Reactive SiO₂ / Si  
Fe  
SiO₂ ≈ 0.23 wt.% ; Si = Supports potential ASR in aggregates  
1062–1112 ppm  
exposed to alkalis.  
Fe  
99–110 ppm  
Accelerates reinforcement corrosion in  
chloride environments.  
Trace  
Elements Pb, Cd, Ag  
Pb = 2–4 ppm; Cd = 19–22 Occur in low levels; reported for  
(Pb, Cd, Ag)  
ppm; Ag = 32–35 ppm  
completeness but limited structural  
impact.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1263  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
Testing  
Compressive and tensile strength tests were used to assess the cube's strength. The cube specimens were loaded  
into a compression-testing machine after seawater curing until they failed as part of the compressive strength  
test. A cylindrical specimen was positioned horizontally and loaded along its length until there was a split to  
perform the tensile strength test.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  
Compressive Strength Before and After Seawater Exposure (28 Days)  
The compressive strength test was conducted on concrete specimens containing different levels of microsilica  
replacement at 28 days of curing, both before and after exposure to seawater. The comparative 28-day results  
are presented in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1, which show the corresponding compressive strength for each mix  
before and after exposure.  
Table 5.1 Compressive Strength before and after Seawater Exposure  
Mix  
ID  
Microsilica  
Replacement  
(%)  
Failure load  
Before  
Exposure  
(kN)  
Before  
Exposure  
(kN/m²)  
Failure load  
After  
Exposure  
(kN)  
After  
Exposure  
(kN/m²)  
%
Change  
Control (0%)  
MS–5 w%  
693.8  
843.2  
707.4  
919.8  
30.5  
733.50  
897.75  
879.75  
936.00  
32.6  
+6.9%  
+7.8%  
+26.1%  
+3.0%  
(OA)  
(A)  
37.0  
31.0  
40.4  
39.9  
39.1  
41.6  
MS–10 w%  
MS–15 w%  
(B)  
(C)  
Figure 5.1 Variation of Compressive Strength before and after Seawater Exposure (28 Days)  
The difference in the compressive strength of concrete before and after 28 days of exposure to seawater with  
varying amounts of microsilica replacement is shown in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1. The findings show that after  
exposure to seawater, the compressive strength of all mixes increased, although the amount of improvement  
varied depending on the microsilica content.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1264  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
The seawater analysis revealed high levels of aggressive ions, particularly Mg²⁺, SO₄²⁻, and alkalis that are  
known to cause decalcification of cement paste Zhang et al. (2021), sulphate-induced expansion Huang et al.  
(2024); Li et al. (2023), and reinforcement corrosion (Kobayashi et al., 2023). These chemical conditions  
correspond with the modest strength increase observed in the control mix (+6.9%), confirming its limited  
resistance to marine deterioration (Purwantoro et al., 2024; Yao & Chen, 2022). In contrast, microsilica-modified  
concretes displayed markedly improved performance after exposure, with the 5w% MS and 15w% MS mixes  
gaining (+7.8%) and (+3.0%) respectively, while the 10% MS mix exhibited the highest increase at (+26.1%)  
(Khan et al., 2023; Gerasimova & Berdysheva, 2018).  
This enhancement is attributed to the pozzolanic reaction of microsilica, which consumes Ca₂ and produces  
additional C–S–H (Miah et al., 2023; Malaiškiene & Jakubovskis, 2025). Resulting in a denser microstructure  
Hoque and Presuel‐Moreno (2025); Vandhiyan et al. (2020) and reduced permeability that restricts the ingress  
of harmful ions (Hoque & Presuel‐Moreno, 2025; Kumar et al., 2023). Overall, the combined effects of seawater  
chemistry and cementitious reactions highlight the vulnerability of ordinary concrete Miah et al. (2023); Qu et  
al. (2020); Yi et al. (2020) and the substantial durability gains provided by microsilica under marine exposure  
(García et al., 2020; Sikora et al., 2020; Ghanei et al., 2018).  
Tensile Strength Before and After Seawater Exposure  
When evaluating concrete's ability to withstand tensile stresses, tensile strength is crucial. After microsilica  
replacement at 28 days of curing, both before and after exposure to seawater, this study examined the effects of  
seawater exposure on the tensile strength of concrete with varying microsilica levels. The results are shown in  
Table 5.2 and Figure 5.2 for comparison.  
Table 5.2 Tensile Strength before and after Seawater Exposure  
Mix  
ID  
Microsilica  
Replacement  
(%)  
Failure load  
Before  
Exposure  
(kN)  
Before  
Exposure  
(kN/m²)  
Failure load  
After  
Exposure  
(kN)  
After  
Exposure  
(kN/m²)  
%
Change  
Control (0%)  
MS–5 w%  
110.15  
125.13  
130.52  
139.42  
4.90  
5.56  
5.80  
6.20  
89.91  
99.47  
98.48  
101.56  
3.996  
4.421  
4.377  
4.514  
−18.45 %  
−20.48 %  
−24.53 %  
−27.19 %  
(OA)  
(A)  
MS–10 w%  
MS–15 w%  
(B)  
(C)  
Figure 5.2 Variation of Tensile Strength before and after Seawater Exposure (28 Days)  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1265  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
The study investigates the effects of microsilica replacement in cementitious matrices on tensile strength before  
and after seawater exposure. Results show that tensile strength increased significantly with up to 15% microsilica  
replacement, rising from 4.90 kN/m² in the control mix to 6.20 kN/m², attributed to additional C–S–H gel  
formation and reduced capillary porosity (Li et al., 2025; Miah et al., 2023; Kashyap et al., 2023; Burhan et al.,  
2019). However, after seawater exposure, all mixtures experienced a decline in tensile strength, with losses  
ranging from 18.45% in the control to 27.19% in the 15% microsilica mix (Alomayri et al., 2023; Qiao et al.,  
2022; Moffatt et al., 2020). Despite the microsilica mixes maintaining higher strength, the proportional loss  
increased with microsilica content, highlighting how environmental conditions affect deterioration (Qiao et al.,  
2022). XRF analysis indicated elevated levels of magnesium and sulphate ions, contributing to C–S–H  
destabilisation and the formation of weaker phases (Chakkor et al., 2020; Metalssi et al., 2023; Esteban-Arranz  
et al., 2021).  
The sulphate concentration also exacerbates deterioration, as it fosters the formation of ettringite and gypsum,  
causing expansion and microcracking that notably impair tensile strength (Chen et al., 2020; Elahi et al., 2021;  
Guo et al., 2019). Additionally, the presence of Ca²⁺ in the seawater facilitates leaching Huang et al. (2024);  
Zhang et al. (2023), while alkali elements (K⁺ and reactive silica) may trigger minor alkali-silica reactivity under  
cyclical wetting and drying conditions (Deschenes et al., 2018). Despite low levels of trace metals and iron, their  
presence aligns with the corrosive characteristics of the environment (Yu et al., 2025; Kim et al., 2018). Overall,  
the data reflect that while microsilica enhances the initial structural integrity of the mortar Altawaiha et al.  
(2023); Bansal et al. (2024), the aggressive magnesium- and sulphate-rich seawater leads to significant gradual  
degradation primarily driven by C–S–H destabilisation (Peng et al., 2024; Jia et al., 2023). Nevertheless, the  
mixes modified with microsilica exhibited better post-exposure strength, suggesting improved performance  
relative to conventional OPCC under marine exposure conditions (Georges et al., 2021; García et al., 2020).  
CONCLUSION  
This study examined the effects of microsilica as a partial cement replacement on the compressive and tensile  
strengths of concrete after 28 days in seawater. The results showed that microsilica enhanced the compressive  
strength, with a peak increase of 26.1% at a 10 w% replacement, which was attributed to improved pozzolanic  
activity and microstructure densification. Following seawater exposure, all concrete mixes gained additional  
compressive strength owing to the secondary calcium silicate hydrate formation. However, the tensile strength  
decreased owing to chloride and sulphate penetration, leading to microcracking, with losses ranging from  
18.45% to 27.19%. However, concrete with 10-15 w% microsilica replacement exhibited higher residual tensile  
strengths than the control, indicating better resistance to chloride damage. Although further protective measures  
are recommended, the findings indicate that microsilica can enhance the strength and durability of concrete in  
marine environments, making it a viable supplementary cementitious material for sustainable coastal structures.  
FUTURE RESEARCH  
1. Evaluating other properties such as workability, shrinkage, and resistance to cyclic wetting and drying  
would enhance practical relevance.  
2. Comparative studies with other supplementary cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash, slag) could  
contextualize microsilica’s performance advantages.  
3. Including environmental and economic assessments of partial cement replacement could support  
sustainable construction claims.  
REFERENCES  
1. Ali, A., Khan, M. I., & Abbas, S. (2022). Resistance of high-strength concrete with silica fume and fly  
ash to chloride penetration. Construction and Building Materials, 318, 125934.  
2. Altawaiha, A., Alnuaimi, A., & Al-Mufti, S. (2023). Effect of microsilica on microstructure and  
durability of concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 35, 04022374.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1266  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
3. Bach, V. (2019). The Role of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in Enhancing Concrete Durability.  
Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 17, 1-13.  
4. Burhan, N., Ramli, M., & Al-Omari, O. (2019). Mechanical and durability properties of concrete  
incorporating palm oil fuel ash and silica fume. Construction and Building Materials, 205, 54-65.  
5. Chaudhary, S., & Sinha, S. (2020). Effect of mineral admixtures on the permeability and durability of  
concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 254, 119277.  
6. Chen, F., Li, W., Dong, W., et al. (2020). Durability deterioration of concrete under marine environment  
from material to structure: A critical review. Journal of Building Engineering, 35.  
7. Dashti, F., Ali, M. N., & Hussein, A. A. (2025). Performance of high-performance concrete with silica  
fume and metakaolin in marine environments. Construction and Building Materials, 450, 138865.  
8. Duque-Redondo, A., Saez, P., & Climent, M. A. (2022). Chemical and mechanical properties of concrete  
with silica fume in aggressive environments. Construction and Building Materials, 326, 126938.  
9. Esteban-Arranz, D., Menendez, E., & Gutierez, T. (2021). Chloride-induced corrosion in reinforced  
concrete structures exposed to marine environment. Corrosion Science, 193, 109869.  
10. Garg, R., Singh, S. P., & Aggarwal, V. (2021). A review on durability of concrete with supplementary  
cementitious materials in aggressive environments. Construction and Building Materials, 270, 121345.  
11. Geng, G., & Zhang, J. (2023). Influence of silica fume on the hydration products and microstructure of  
cement paste. Construction and Building Materials, 362, 129759.  
12. Georges, H., Toutlemonde, F., & Al-Mukhtar, M. (2020). Deterioration of concrete in marine  
environment: A review. Construction and Building Materials, 238, 117769.  
13. Gerasimova, E. S., & Berdysheva, E. A. (2018). The effect of microsilica on the properties of fine-grained  
concrete. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 463, 022035.  
14. Huang, C., Li, S., & Zhang, Q. (2024). Degradation mechanism and service life prediction of reinforced  
concrete in chloride-sulfate environments. Corrosion Science, 229, 111818.  
15. Husain, A., Khan, M. I., & Ahmad, S. (2021). Performance of concrete with high volume of fly ash and  
silica fume. Journal of Building Engineering, 36, 102075.  
16. Kancharla, M., Subramaniam, K. V., & Rangaraju, A. (2021). Microstructural and durability  
characteristics of high strength concrete containing nano-silica and fly ash. Construction and Building  
Materials, 281, 122557.  
17. Karim, M. R., Islam, M. N., & Hasan, M. A. (2019). Effects of silica fume on the properties of cement  
paste and concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 203, 674-686.  
18. Kashyap, D., Singh, N., & Gupta, S. (2023). Effect of different supplementary cementitious materials on  
the properties of concrete: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 75, 247-251.  
19. Khan, M. I., & Abbas, S. (2021). Performance of concrete containing silica fume and fly ash in aggressive  
environments. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 33, 04020412.  
20. Khan, M. S., Ahmad, M., & Alam, M. (2023). Durability of concrete containing various supplementary  
cementitious materials in aggressive environments. Journal of Building Engineering, 75, 106301.  
21. Kim, Y. S., Park, J. S., & Lee, S. H. (2025). Performance of sustainable concrete containing recycled  
aggregate and supplementary cementitious materials for marine applications. Journal of Cleaner  
Production, 450, 141673.  
22. Kobayashi, K., Suzuki, K., & Kawakami, H. (2023). Durability of concrete in marine environment  
considering chloride and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 173, 107382.  
23. Kumar, R., Singh, R., & Singh, S. (2020). Influence of micro-silica on mechanical and durability  
properties of concrete. Materials Today: Proceedings, 26, 3328-3333.  
24. Lee, S. T., Kim, M. S., & Kim, Y. H. (2024). Durability performance of high-strength concrete with  
silica fume exposed to chloride attack. Construction and Building Materials, 418, 135327.  
25. Liu, Y., Li, S., & Zhang, Q. (2023). Microstructural analysis of concrete with different supplementary  
cementitious materials exposed to chloride attack. Journal of Building Engineering, 69, 106198.  
26. Luo, X., Wang, L., & Cai, X. (2021). Microstructure and mechanical properties of ultra-high performance  
concrete containing microsilica. Construction and Building Materials, 297, 123861.  
27. Maddalena, R., Cangiano, S., & Marroccoli, M. (2018). Pozzolanic reaction of silica fume in cement-  
based materials: A review. Cement and Concrete Research, 108, 10-21.  
28. Malaga, S., Sánchez, L., & Gettu, R. (2019). Mechanisms of concrete degradation in marine  
environment. Materials and Structures, 52, 1-18.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1267  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XI, November 2025  
29. Margapuram, J., Prahlad, S., & Shetty, A. (2024). Assessment of concrete deterioration in marine  
environment. Structures, 61, 106093.  
30. Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2014). Concrete: Microstructure, properties, and materials (4th ed.).  
McGraw-Hill Education.  
31. Melchers, R. E. (2020). Service life models for concrete structures in marine environments. Cement and  
Concrete Research, 133, 106069.  
32. Miah, M. J., Islam, M. M., Billah, M. M., & Rahman, A. (2023). Development of high-performance  
concrete using recycled aggregate and supplementary cementitious materials. Journal of Building  
Engineering, 73, 106692.  
33. Moffatt, S. S., & Thomas, M. D. A. (2018). Chloride penetration into concrete containing supplementary  
cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Composites, 86, 1-13. Moffatt & Thomas,  
34. Mostofinejad, D., Kashani, A. S., & Behnam, B. (2024). Effectiveness of supplementary cementitious  
materials in improving durability of concrete in aggressive environments: A review. Construction and  
Building Materials, 418, 135431.  
35. Neville, A. M. (2012). Properties of concrete (5th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.  
36. Park, S., Lee, Y., & Kim, J. (2021). Performance evaluation of concrete incorporating various  
supplementary cementitious materials in marine environment. Construction and Building Materials, 273,  
121966.  
37. Park, W. J., Kim, R., Roh, S., & Ban, H. (2020). Identifying the Major Construction Wastes in the  
Building Construction Phase Based on Life Cycle Assessments. Applied Sciences, 10, 6770.  
38. Qiao, P., Zhang, J., & Li, W. (2022). Evaluation of mechanical properties and durability of microsilica  
concrete in marine environment. Construction and Building Materials, 320, 126159.  
39. Sadati, S. M., Sadeghian, S., & Shahraki, S. (2017). Investigating the effect of silica fume on strength  
and durability of concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 29, 04016183.  
40. Sharaky, I., Balasubramanian, T., & Al-Amoudi, O. S. B. (2019). Influence of silica fume on  
performance of concrete in marine environment. Magazine of Concrete Research, 71, 1017-1030.  
41. Thomas, M. D. A., & Siddique, R. (2011). Supplementary cementitious materials in concrete. Taylor &  
Francis.  
42. Trebukhin, E. A., Sinyavskaya, A. E., & Shaidullina, L. A. (2024). Microstructure and Properties of Fine-  
Grained Concrete with Activated Microsilica. Materials, 17, 481.  
43. Zhang, M., Xu, R., Liu, K., et al. (2022). Research progress on durability of marine concrete under the  
combined action of Cl− erosion, carbonation, and dry–wet cycles. Reviews on Advanced Materials  
Science, 61, 121–142.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 1268