INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Factors Hindering the Teaching and Learning of Computers in  
Secondary Schools in Chiwundura: A Case of Four Secondary  
Schools in Chiwundura Cluster, Gweru, Zimbabwe  
1 Wara Shepard* 2 Mudenda Henry  
1 Lecturer, Department of Information Communication Technology, Matabeleland North Regional  
Campus, Zimbabwe Open University.  
2 Lecturer, Department of Teachers Development, Matabeleland North Regional Campus, Zimbabwe  
Open University.  
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1412000022  
Received: 15 December 2025; Accepted: 22 December 2025; Published: 29 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
The study sought to examine the factors that hinder the teaching of computers in four selected secondary  
schools in Chiwundura Cluster Centre in Gweru in Midlands Province in Zimbabwe. Teaching and learning of  
computers in educational institutions cannot be over-emphasized the world over, as computers are now the  
lifeblood of any society. The study adopted a mixed research approach, thus the use of interviews,  
questionnaires and observations. 20 respondents who are teachers selected using probability sampling method  
from four (4) selected secondary schools from a pool of 5 secondary schools in the cluster. The findings  
established that some of the secondary schools in Chiwundura do not have computers hence this problem has  
contributed much to the non-teaching and learning of computers in Chiwundura secondary schools. The study  
revealed that lack of trained teachers and poor funding were considered as the major causes to the non-  
teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools, computer illiteracy, lack of computer usage  
infrastructure among others were negatively affecting the teaching of computers in selected secondary schools  
in Chiwundura. The study concluded that teacher training institutions should train more computer teachers for  
to curb the shortage of trained personnel that are meant for the teaching and learning of computers. In a bid to  
eliminate the non-teaching and learning of computers, schools’ administrators need to be trained or oriented on  
how to implement the teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools. The study recommended the  
stakeholders to resume the computerization and the rural electrification programmes as well as introduce the  
use of alternative source of power like solar energy. Further recommendations were that administrators in  
secondary schools in Chiwundura should priorities the implementation of the teaching and learning of  
computer studies when making their budgets, hence the need for the acquisition and development of computer  
infrastructure in their schools.  
Computers, Secondary schools, Teaching and learning.  
INTRODUCTION  
In recent years, the integration of computer usage in teaching and learning has become a crucial component for  
the advancement of any society, functioning as its lifeblood. In developed nations such as the USA, Australia,  
Britain, Mexico, and the Netherlands, there is a notable prevalence of computers in educational curricula.  
Merireng (2013) highlighted that students in these countries are experiencing widespread access to computer  
studies as a formal subject within their educational frameworks. According to Osakwe (2012), over 80% of  
secondary schools in the USA now offer computer education, reflecting a significant commitment to equipping  
students with essential digital skills. This shift indicates that educational institutions have evolved to  
incorporate technology, adapting to the ever-evolving landscape of information and communication  
technologies (ICT). In contrast, Adebayo (2016) and Mwebaza (2017) respectively noted that Nigeria and  
Zambia showcased the complexities surrounding the integration of computer education within their  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 251  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
educational systems. Nigeria, despite having a growing technology sector, faced challenges such as inadequate  
infrastructure and intermittent electricity, which hindered effective implementation of computer studies in  
schools. Similarly, in Zambia, efforts to promote ICT in education are hampered by resource limitations and  
uneven access to technology across urban and rural areas. Zimbabwe is likely to face similar challenges. The  
thrust of this study was to investigate the factors that impede the teaching and learning of computer studies in  
secondary schools within the Chiwundura cluster, specifically focusing on four secondary schools in Gweru.  
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY  
In this present age of globalization, the teaching and learning of computers is continually widening between  
the developing and developed nations. Mkandawire (2004), claim that educational institutions in some of  
African countries, such as Rwanda, are still lagging behind in adopting the teaching and learning of computers  
in schools. In a report entitled ‘ICT integration in schools: (2012), the World Bank states that the mammoth  
task confronting education policy-makers in Africa is the alignment of educational institutions and their  
practices with the rapid mounting demands of globalization and the technology-driven world.  
Developed countries such as Britain and America were the first to adopt the teaching and learning of  
computers in urban secondary schools, with the aim of impart computer skills to the learner in response to the  
technological changes the world over (Asiabaka, 2010), (BECTA, 2007), (Anulika, 2014). The benefits of  
learning computers include the acquisition of computer related skills as well as the effectiveness and efficiency  
in the use of ICT tools in workplaces among others. In most African states, the teaching and learning of  
computers in secondary schools was adopted in the late 80s and early 90s (Atulomah, 2011). Mndzebele  
(2013) and Osakwe (2012) posit that in Swaziland and Tanzania, the teaching and learning of computers was  
only adopted in 1993 and 1997 respectively.  
Mkandawire (2004) asserts that in Zimbabwe, the teaching and learning of computers in schools was not a  
common phenomenon and was only adopted in Zimbabwe’s secondary schools in 2002 following  
recommendations by the Nziramasanga Education Commission Report of 1999 on the use of computers for  
teaching and learning of computers studies in schools. This was in sync with Kabweza (2012), who indicated  
that the distribution of computers in the schools in Zimbabwe started in the year 2000, when the then late  
President of the Republic of Zimbabwe, Cde. Robert G. Mugabe donated computers to schools during the  
Presidential e-Learning Programme Musarurwa’s (2011) study revealed that since 2002 most of Zimbabwe’s  
urban secondary schools started adopting the teaching and learning of computers. Mandogaet al (2013) posit  
that the teaching and learning of computers in Zimbabwe’ rural secondary schools was below 5%, but there  
were serious indications of computer exploitation for the teaching and learning of computer studies in rural  
secondary schools in Makoni East district. However, Konyana and Konyana (n.d) claim that most rural  
secondary schools in Zimbabwe are now treating computer studies as a compulsory subject just like  
Mathematics, Science and English language due to technological demands.  
Computer illiteracy has a negative impact on national development due to ineffective and inefficient use of  
ICTs (Mandoga et al. , 2013). However, there is no doubt that the growing number of computer illiterate  
people in Chiwundura district has a negative effect in the general development of Chiwundura area and  
Zimbabwe at large. As claimed by Mwalongo (2011), computer illiteracy also increases ineffectiveness and  
inefficiency at workplaces due to inability in the use of ICTs. Therefore, this research wants to establish the  
factors hindering the teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools in Chiwundura cluster in Gweru  
rural district.  
The study of computers equips learners with the practical skills in the use of ICT tools. Mkandawire (2004)  
posit that computer studies enhance learners’ effectiveness and efficiency in computer related tasks. Computer  
studies also enables users to function properly in the prevailing socio-economic and technological  
environments, hence promoting self-reliance in the use of ICT tools in promoting economic growth and  
national development through ownership and exploitation of ICT tools.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 252  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Statement of the problem  
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors hindering the teaching and learning of computers in  
secondary schools in Chiwundura. Secondary schools in Chiwundura appear to be living in pre-historic era in  
terms of teaching and learning of computers, despite the enormous advantages embedded in the use of  
computers. Gweru Rural District has the highest number of computer illiterates emanating from the non-  
teaching and learning of computers in schools. However, there are a few secondary schools in Gweru Rural,  
including those in Chiwundura cluster, which have computers, but they are not meant for the teaching and  
learning of computers as a subject, as required by the new curriculum. In most cases, some of the secondary  
schools in Chiwundura do not have a single computer, even for the administrative work purposes. The  
acquiring of computer skills has proven to be a necessary skill of modern times due to their contribution  
towards effectiveness and efficiency in the world of work including their application in all facets of our lives.  
The non- teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools in Gweru Rural particularly in Chiwundura  
Cluster was the main problem to be investigated in this study.  
Research objective  
The main research objectives of this study are:  
1. To assess the accessibility and use of computers for teaching and learning about computers as a  
curriculum subject in secondary schools in Chiwundura cluster.  
2. To identify the factors that impede the teaching and learning of computer studies in secondary schools  
in Chiwundura cluster.  
3. To explore strategies that can be implemented to address the challenges affecting the teaching and  
learning of computer studies in secondary schools in Chiwundura cluster.  
Theoretical framing  
The study was framed and synthesized under several educational theories thus: the Technological Pedagogical  
Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, Social Constructivism, and the Socioeconomic Status (SES) theory  
as shown by Figure 1 below:  
Figure 1: Integration of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, Social  
Constructivism, and the Socioeconomic Status (SES) theory: Author’s Illustration  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 253  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
The diagram is a three-circle Venn diagram that visually represents the relationship between TPACK, Social  
Constructivism, and Socioeconomic Status (SES) Theory. Each circle is distinctly colored, making it easy to  
differentiate the three theoretical frameworks. The overlapping areas highlight the conceptual intersections,  
while the center is where all three circles meet and contains the label “Educational Theories”, signalling the  
combined influence of all frameworks when integrated.  
The TPACK, framework, was developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), provides a comprehensive  
understanding of the interplay between technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge in education. Its  
position at the top of the diagram visually conveys its role in shaping instructional design and digital  
integration. The overlap between TPACK and the other theories suggests that technological competence  
intersects with both social learning principles and contextual socioeconomic factors that influence technology  
access and use. This framework suggests that effective computer teaching requires not only access to  
technological resources but also teachers' ability to integrate technology into their teaching strategies. In  
Chiwundura, insufficient training for educators on how to effectively employ computer technology in the  
classroom limits students' learning opportunities. Teachers may not feel confident in using computers as  
teaching tools, leading to a lack of motivation and engagement in computer education (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-  
Leftwich, 2010).  
Social Constructivism, as proposed by theorists like Vygotsky (1978), emphasizes the role of social  
interactions and cultural context in the learning process. The Social Constructivism circle, located on the left,  
represents learning as a socially mediated process. Its intersection with TPACK implies that effective  
technology integration must support collaboration, interaction, and meaning-making. Meanwhile, the area  
where Social Constructivism intersects with SES Theory acknowledges that learners’ social environments and  
cultural experiences, shaped in part by socioeconomic conditions, play a central role in how knowledge is  
constructed. In Chiwundura, the cultural perception of computers and technology significantly influences both  
teacher and student attitudes toward computer education. If the community undervalues computer skills in  
favour of traditional methods, it can create a socio-cultural barrier to engagement with technology. This  
situation impacts both teachers’ willingness to adopt computer teaching methods and students’ enthusiasm to  
learn, thereby hindering the development of critical technological competencies.  
The Socioeconomic Status (SES) theory highlights the importance of social and economic conditions in  
shaping educational access and quality (Coleman et al., 1966). The SES Theory circle on the right highlights  
the influence of socioeconomic conditions on educational opportunities, resources, and outcomes. Where it  
overlaps with TPACK, the diagram suggests that economic factors affect access to technology and digital  
learning tools. The shared intersection of all three circles symbolizes the idea that educators must consider  
technological skills, social learning processes, and socioeconomic barriers together when designing equitable  
and effective learning experiences. In many parts of Chiwundura, the lack of resources, such as computers,  
internet access, and electricity, is a reflection of broader socio-economic challenges. Families with low SES  
may prioritize basic needs over computer education, thereby limiting students’ exposure to technology outside  
of school. Additionally, schools may struggle to afford necessary educational technology, thereby affecting the  
implementation of computer curricula in the classroom. The intersection of low SES and inadequate resources  
severely constrains the ability of schools to provide high-quality computer education, perpetuating a cycle of  
digital exclusion.  
The integration of the three theoretical framework is worthwhile to this study because it visually synthesizes  
how TPACK, Social Constructivism, and SES Theory collectively shape the challenges and possibilities of  
technology-enhanced learning. The intersection of these three theories highlights that effective digital  
instruction is not solely about technological competence, but it must also account for how learners construct  
knowledge through social interaction and how socioeconomic conditions influence students’ access, support,  
and participation. This integrated view helps the study justify why educational interventions must be designed  
with technological, pedagogical, social, and equity-related factors in mind in order to fully understand and  
address disparities in digital learning environments.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 254  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE  
Accessibility and use of computers for teaching and learning about computers as a curriculum subject in  
secondary schools in Chiwundura cluster.  
Teaching and learning computer skills in schools is essential globally for improving productivity and  
efficiency in producing goods and services (Osakwe, 2012). The push for computer education stems from the  
numerous significant advantages these tools offer. Osakwe (2012) emphasized that not only is computer  
education convenient, but it can also elevate production standards in the workplace. Morgan and Rhode (1999)  
noted that educators view computers as effective labor-saving devices. Historically, computer education has  
received less focus compared to its applications in administrative tasks. Research indicated that developing  
countries lag behind developed nations in integrating computer education in schools, despite recognizing its  
importance. Saiti and Prokopiadou (2009), as referenced in Makewa et al. (2013), compared the  
implementation of computer teaching in schools to the modernization of technology. More so, according to  
Long and Johnson (2000), most of the schools in developed countries such as Britain and Australia have  
computers used in the teaching and learning of computer studies. Long and Johnson (2000) claim that 95% of  
Britain’s schools have computers. In Australia, Baskin and Williams (2006) posit that the availability of  
computers in schools is claimed to be more than 87%. Bhattachejee (2012) asserts that in the United States of  
America, nearly every learner have a personal computer in all secondary schools. However, Merireng (2013)  
claim that due to the availability of computers in the developed countries, Britain, Australia and the USA  
included, there is a widespread utilisation of computers for the teaching and learning of computers in schools.  
Long and Johnson (2000) asserts that in Britain, legislative provisions have compelled for the utilisation of  
computers for the teaching and learning of computers in schools.  
In sub-Saharan countries like South Africa and Botswana, Aduwa-Ogiegbaen and Iyamu (2005) reported a  
satisfactory availability of computers in schools. Specifically, they noted that over 70% of rural secondary  
schools in South Africa utilize computers predominantly for teaching computer studies, while Botswana boasts  
computer availability above 77% across schools, regardless of location. This high level of access has  
contributed to more advanced teaching and learning of computer skills in these regions.  
Conversely, Manduku et al. (n.d.) highlighted issues in Kenya, where, despite having computers in nearly all  
secondary schools since the 1980s, the actual usage remains unsatisfactory. Mwalongo (2011) further  
emphasized that in Tanzania, despite numerous initiatives to enhance computer education, utilization for both  
teaching and professional development is minimal. In Zimbabwe, Mandoga et al. (2013) found that while most  
urban secondary schools have computers, overall availability is deemed unsatisfactory, with the country  
ranking low on the ICT Network Readiness Index. It was noted that students often bring their own computers,  
yet many rural schools lack any computers entirely for teaching the subject. While there have been  
improvements in certain districts, Musarurwa (2011) pointed out significant underutilization of computers in  
schools due to a lack of qualified personnel, leading to recommendations for an audit to assess the effective  
use of computers provided through government initiatives.  
However, in Chiwundura District, Mkandawire (2004) claimed that 95% of the secondary schools have no  
computers hence making it practically impossible to conduct the teaching and learning of computers.  
Mkandawire (2004) further claim that in those secondary schools where computers are available, the ratio of  
computer use was unacceptable. For example, in Chiwundura cluster, Chiwundura High school has 15  
computers against 645 learners, which is inconsistent with the Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Information and  
Communication Technology’s 2010-2014 strategic plan of having one computer per learner by 2014.  
Mkandawire (2004) asserts that the shortage of computers in schools under study as well as the shortage of  
trained teachers who have specialised to teach computers did not permit schools to conduct computer lessons  
hence this study sought to establish whether these are the causes to the non-teaching and learning of computers  
in Chiwundura secondary schools.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 255  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Factors that impede the teaching and learning of computer studies in secondary schools in Chiwundura  
cluster.  
The non-teaching and learning of computers in schools throughout Zimbabwe and other African nations can be  
traced to a variety of interrelated causes. One of the most significant challenges is the lack of adequate  
infrastructure. Many schools struggle with unreliable electricity and insufficient access to computers and the  
internet, which are essential for effective tech education. Chikasha (2019) highlights that inadequate  
technological resources in schools create barriers that make it nearly impossible to integrate computer  
education into daily learning. Similar sentiment were echoed by Hennessy et al. (2020), who noted that as  
technology becomes more integral to modern education, the absence of infrastructure not only limits access to  
computers but also stifles the interest and motivation of both teachers and students. This would therefore result  
in schools without these vital elements to struggle to integrate computer education into their curricula, limiting  
students' exposure to essential technological skills that are critical in the modern world.  
Furthermore, Mkandawire (2004) argued that many institutions in rural areas end up seeing the teaching and  
learning of computers as a programme that is not top on their priority lists as they have to deal with lack of  
accommodation, electricity and telephones first. Additionally, those institutions that have access to computers  
usually experience difficult challenges with the costs of maintenance and servicing them. More so, various  
studies show that obstacles to the implementation of the teaching and learning of computers are interrelated  
and need to be addressed so that the situation will not continue. It appears that most of the developing  
countries, including Zimbabwe are confronted with numerous challenges inhibiting the teaching and learning  
of computers in schools.  
Another critical barrier is the shortage of qualified personnel trained to deliver computer education effectively.  
Many teachers in developing countries lack sufficient training in information and information communication  
technology (ICT), hindering their ability to facilitate computer literacy among students. As Ertmer and  
Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2013) noted, professional development opportunities for teachers in ICT are often  
insufficient, leaving them unprepared to integrate technology into their teaching practices. This gap in training  
can perpetuate a cycle where students do not engage with computers meaningfully, as they are primarily reliant  
on teachers who may themselves be unsure of how to navigate technological tools. Welzel (2015) further  
highlighted that without proper training, teachers may feel overwhelmed and inadequate, leading to a  
reluctance to incorporate computers into their teaching practice.  
Cultural attitudes towards technology significantly influence the emphasis on computer education in schools.  
In Zimbabwe, traditional subjects like mathematics and literacy often take precedence over digital literacy,  
overshadowing the importance of computer education (Mansions, 2017). These cultural perceptions impact  
parental expectations and educational priorities, contributing to a neglect of computer-based learning. Kafele  
(2016) emphasized that such biases can lead educational systems to undervalue necessary skills for success in  
a digital workforce. Mtebe and Raisamo (2014) further supported this notion by pointing out that these  
educational perceptions can hinder the development of essential digital skills among students.  
Socioeconomic factors also play a crucial role in the ineffectiveness of computer education in schools. In areas  
with high poverty rates, families often struggle to afford the technology necessary for academic success  
(Mahlknecht et al., 2021). This economic hardship limits investment in both technology and education.  
Warschauer and Matuchniak (2010) highlighted that the digital divide results in substantial disparities in  
access to educational resources, including computers and the internet, restricting digital literacy development  
among students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Afful-Dadzie (2020) found that limited financial  
resources can demotivate students, as they may feel less prepared for a technology-driven world. Pelgrum  
(2001) pointed out that varying levels of commitment and resources dedicated to technology in education  
hinder cohesive efforts to teach essential computer skills. The absence of a structured policy framework  
prioritizing technology exacerbates these issues, making it challenging for schools to effectively integrate  
computer education. Gumbo (2020) stressed the need for on-going governmental support and policy  
implementation to improve the teaching and learning of computers in schools, particularly in regions facing  
numerous internal and external challenges. Anulika (2014) identified both factors contributing to these  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 256  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
challenges, including Africa's dependence on external assistance, unfavorable economic conditions, and  
internal issues such as poor governance and corruption, which collectively impede the integration of modern  
technologies in education.  
Strategies that can be implemented to address the challenges affecting the teaching and learning of  
computer studies in secondary schools in Chiwundura cluster.  
Seidman (1996) concurred with Mintz (1997) that teacher training was the best solution to enhance the  
teaching and learning of computers. Mintz (1997) also suggested that respective governments should do more  
in their budgets to include budgets for the acquisition of ICT tools such as computers meant for the teaching  
and learning of computers in schools. James (2004) suggested a host of strategies that can be used in curbing  
computer illiteracy the world over.  
Teacher Training  
Seidman (1996) conducted a study into issues surrounding teacher training and its relationship with the  
successful implementation of computers studies in schools. Along with the statistical analysis, Seidmen (1996)  
found that handwritten comments by teacher respondents overwhelmingly expressed a need for teacher  
training for the teaching of computers in schools. Mintz (1997) recommended that teacher training for the  
teaching of computers should not be limited to teachers who teach computers or who intend to teach computers  
only, but to all those involved in the teaching of learners in schools. However, Seidmen (1996) recommended  
for an international trend on the part of educators to train all teachers in the teaching of computers. This need  
for teacher training is explained by the fact that most of the presently hired teachers received little or no  
training in their formal education in computers. It could also be a reflection of the need to update teachers'  
knowledge in the world of fast moving technology of communication. This strategy was used by the British  
government in 1966 when there was a serious shortage of trained personnel to teach computers studies some  
years after implementing the programme (Merireng, 2013).  
Mintz (1997) asserted that training teachers for the teaching of computers is of paramount importance when  
considering  
integrating  
computer  
studies  
in  
schools.  
Mintz  
(1997)  
echoed  
Seidmen's (1996) view that training teachers for the teaching of computers was one of the strategies to  
successfully implement the teaching and learning of computers in schools. The Office of Technology  
Assessment Report (cited in Geisert and Futrell, 1995) was written for the U. S. Congress to provide federal  
policy-makers an information base for making long-term decisions about the teaching of computers in  
education. The OTA report lists adequate teacher training as one of the recommendations in the report and  
providing adequate teacher training programs in computer studies. The OTA also recommended for the need of  
continued in-service computer training programs as technology changes, as more effective uses of technology  
are developed, and as research provides a better understanding of how children need to learn computer skills.  
Geisert and Futrell (1995) argued that teachers are crucial in implementing computers studies in the classroom.  
McKenzie (1994), Solomon (1995), Bennett (1996) and Holzberg (1997) concurred that teacher training is  
necessary for the teaching and learning of computers in schools is to occur. However, key to teacher training is  
drawing a link between pedagogy and technology.  
Development and acquisition of computer infrastructure  
Availability and accessibility of computer infrastructure and resources such as hardware and software is an  
essential condition to effective adoption and integration of the teaching and learning of computers in schools.  
Mndzebele (2013) claim that acquisition of computer hardware and software as one the major strategies that  
can enhance the teaching and learning of computers in schools. Middleton, Flores and Knaupp (1997) view the  
hardware factor as an accessibility barrier. Middleton et al (1997) argue that computers need to be situated in  
classrooms where they can be easily accessed by students and used in a meaningful and pragmatic way. The  
barrier of poor or limited accessibility prevents true integration of computer lessons in schools. In order to be  
true tools for learning, computers need to be on hand when the need arises.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 257  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Furthermore, the absence of suitable rooms for the computer equipment was a challenge in most schools in  
Africa as some did not have suitable buildings at all. Webb (2010) state that plans for integrating the teaching  
and learning of computers at such schools would require the construction of special rooms which can be  
pricey. Webb (2010) also asserts that there was need of installing air-conditioning systems in the computer  
rooms for countries with extremely high temperatures. The strategy of acquiring computers infrastructure was  
used by the government of Swaziland prior to the adoption of the teaching and learning of computers in  
Swaziland’s rural schools.  
Inclusion of school’s computerisation programme on national budgets  
James (2004) observed that when school administrators have tight budget constraints, and introducing  
technology may not be their top priority. GESCI (2009) observed that schools were faced with financial  
challenges for them to acquire computers for the teaching and learning of computer studies, as well as  
maintaining them due to technological obsolescence. However, Onyije and Opara (2013) concurred that in  
such instances there is need for respective governments to put aside funds mainly for the computerisation  
programmes in schools. These funds can be used for purchasing computer hardware and software, training  
teachers to teach computers, financing school electrification programmes and building of computer room just  
to mention but a few. Mwalongo (2011) found that lack of funding frustrated progress for the teaching and  
learning of computers in schools. Various research studies show that poor funding patterns by African  
governments was a major problem hindering the acquisition of computers in the African education systems.  
For example, the government of Tanzania rarely prioritise budgeting for ICTs in their national budgets  
(Mwalongo, 2011). In Kenya, Osakwe (2012) claim that most of the computer equipment used in schools was  
acquired through school development programmes.  
Relaxation of import laws on computer hardware  
Mkandawire (2004) argued that acquiring computer hardware locally was too expensive hence the need to  
consider purchasing them from beyond our borders. However, Morton (1997) observed that most countries had  
strict laws regarding imports of electrical gadgets such as computers. In view of this, Mkandawire (2004)  
recommended for the relaxation of import laws on computer hardware purchases so as to enable even the low  
income generating schools to purchase ICT equipment for the teaching and learning of computers in schools.  
Introducing electrification programme in schools  
Mndzebele (2013) argued that electricity was paramount to the implementation of the teaching and learning of  
computers in schools. Musarurwa (2011) observed that most rural schools were not electrified, hence the need  
to introduce electrification programmes so as to enhance the teaching and learning of computers in rural  
schools. Mandogaet al (2013) recommended that in order to successfully implement computerization in rural  
schools, respective governments should first ensure that schools were electrified. Mwalongo (2011) also  
concurred with Mandoga et al’s (2013) recommendation and said that electrification of schools was one of the  
major strategies of introducing computerization in schools.  
Training of school administrators  
Leadership is very important in every human endeavour including the education sector. According to Morton  
(1997), leaders are people with the capacity to influence, direct and coordinate activities. ACAS (2010) asserts  
that change and progress in the teaching and learning of computers in schools requires on-going commitment  
and involvement of management to compliment the transformative teaching of computers. School  
administrators are the key change agents and their commitment guarantees continuous supply of human,  
material and time resources. Mndzebele (2013) argued that their commitment and involvement would help in  
cutting through the bureaucratic red tape that would have potentially been an obstacle. Webb (2010) suggests  
that unless and until the school leadership or administration is dedicated to change, nothing will succeed.  
However, Morton (1997) and Brand (1998) concurred and suggested that school administrators need to be  
oriented on the implementation of the teaching and learning of computers in schools. Arzt, (1991) and Lockard  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 258  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
et al (cited in Mann, 1997) recommended that school administrators needed to be inducted on the importance  
of teaching and learning of computers in schools. Persky (1999) (cited in Brand, 1998) also suggested that  
school administrators need to be philosophically developed in order to guide the implementation of the  
teaching and learning of computers in schools as well as offering support for the technological development of  
teachers.  
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  
In examining factors hindering the teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools in the Chiwundura  
Cluster, a mixed-methods research approach was employed, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative  
data analysis techniques. Quantitative data were analyzed using statistical methods to identify trends and  
correlations among variables, such as resource availability and teacher qualifications, while qualitative  
findings were derived from interviews and focus groups, providing deeper insights into the contextual  
challenges faced by educators. As a way of countering potential biases stemming from respondents' subjective  
perceptions and unequal resource access across schools, the researcher utilized a random sampling method to  
ensure diverse representation and triangulated data with external evaluations or observations to provide a more  
balanced perspective on the challenges of computer education. The integration of these findings involved  
triangulating the data, where qualitative insights enriched the quantitative results, allowing for a more  
comprehensive understanding of the barriers to effective computer education in the selected schools. The  
researcher used the random probability sampling from a pool of four secondary schools to come up with  
participants. This sampling method ensures each school has an equal chance of being selected, promoting  
representativeness and minimizing selection bias (Creswell, 2014). Through random sampling, the study  
enhanced the validity of the findings, allowing for a more generalizable understanding of the issues affecting  
computer education within this specific context.  
More so, through combining both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods, the research will utilize  
surveys to gather numerical data from teachers and students regarding their experiences and access to  
computer resources. Simultaneously, case study design facilitates an in-depth exploration of the selected  
schools through interviews and focus group discussions. According to Yin (2014), such case studies provide  
valuable insights into the complexities of educational settings, offering a comprehensive view of the factors  
influencing computer education. This mixed-methods approach not only captures the statistical trends in  
computer teaching and learning but also delves into the contextual factors, such as infrastructural challenges  
and professional development needs, providing a holistic view of the educational landscape in Chiwundura.  
In this study, a combination of questionnaires, interviews, and observations was employed to investigate the  
factors hindering the teaching and learning of computers in four secondary schools, thus Tangwena secondary  
school, Chiwundura High School, St Patricks Secondary school and Gunde Secondary School within the  
Chiwundura Cluster in Gweru. The use of questionnaires allowed for the efficient collection of quantitative  
data teachers, facilitating the identification of trends regarding their access to technology and training  
(Creswell, 2014). Interviews with school heads and their deputies provided qualitative insights into their  
personal experiences and perceptions, revealing specific challenges, such as inadequate training and lack of  
resources (Yin, 2014). Furthermore, observations in classroom settings enabled the researcher to gain first-  
hand insights into instructional practices and the actual use of technology during lessons, identifying barriers  
that may not be apparent through self-reported data (Cohen et al., 2011). Through triangulation of these  
methods, the study aimed to generate a comprehensive understanding of the obstacles faced in computer  
education, ultimately leading to actionable strategies for improving teaching and learning in these schools.  
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS  
Respondents’ Demographic Data  
The distribution of participants by gender is shown on Table 1 below:  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 259  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Gender  
Males  
Frequency  
Percentage  
8
40%  
Females  
Total  
12  
20  
60%  
100%  
Table 1: Distribution of participants by gender.  
The gender distribution shows a slight majority of female teachers (60%) compared to males (40%), reflecting  
a relatively balanced representation in the teaching workforce. This near-equal gender ratio may promote  
diverse perspectives in educational practices and policies. The implication of this distribution suggests that  
both genders are valued in the educational environment, which can enhance collaboration and create a more  
inclusive atmosphere for students.  
Distribution of respondents by qualifications is shown on Table 2 below:  
Qualification  
Diploma  
Degree  
Frequency  
Percentage  
30%  
6
10  
4
50%  
Masters  
Total  
20%  
20  
100%  
Table 2: Distribution of respondents by qualifications.  
The qualifications data reveals a predominantly well-educated teaching workforce, with 50% holding a  
Bachelor's degree, the largest single category. Additionally, 20% of the teachers possess a Master's degree,  
indicating a commitment to furthering their education and expertise. Conversely, those with only a Diploma  
make up 30% of the sample, suggesting a balanced representation of varying educational backgrounds among  
the participants. The diversity in qualifications may also foster a collaborative environment where experienced  
educators can mentor those with Diplomas, ultimately promoting professional development and improving the  
overall educational experience for students.  
Distribution of respondents by years of teaching experience is shown in Table 3 as below:  
Years of Teaching experience  
0-5 years  
Frequency  
Percentage  
25%  
5
6-10 years  
2
10%  
11-15 years  
5
25%  
16 years and above  
Total  
8
40%  
20  
100%  
Table 3: Distribution of respondents by years of teaching experience.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 260  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
The data indicates a diverse range of teaching experiences among the participants, with the largest group  
(40%) having over 16 years of experience, suggesting a predominance of seasoned educators. Conversely, the  
categories of 0-5 years and 11-15 years each account for 25%, while those with 6-10 years of experience are  
the least represented at 10%. The distribution indicates a potential wealth of experience within the teaching  
cohort, which could positively influence educational practices and mentorship opportunities.  
The availability and utilization of computers for teaching and learning about computers as a curriculum  
subject in secondary schools within the Chiwundura cluster.  
Name of School  
Number of  
Ratio Against  
Evaluation  
Computers Learners  
Tangwena Secondary School  
Chiwundura High School  
St Patricks High School  
Gunde High School  
0
-
Extremely Not Satisfactory  
Not Satisfactory  
15  
20  
25  
1:43  
1:45  
1:42  
Not Satisfactory  
Not Satisfactory  
Table 4.4 Availability of computers in secondary schools in Chiwundura  
The data indicates a significant shortage of computers across the secondary schools in the Chiwundura cluster,  
particularly at Tangwena Secondary School, which has no computers available for teaching. This lack of  
resources may lead to teachers feeling discouraged or unwilling to teach the computer subject, as they may  
perceive the environment as inadequate for delivering effective instruction. Additionally, the limited student-  
to-computer ratios in Chiwundura High School, St. Patricks High School, and Gunde High School further  
complicate the ability for teachers to effectively engage students in hands-on learning experiences. Computer  
shortage in secondary schools in Chiwundura is therefore argued to be one of the contributory factors to the  
non-teaching and learning of computers in secondary schools in Chiwundura. The same factor was identified  
by Osin (1998) as one hindering the teaching of computers in Europe. Osin (1998) disappointingly observed  
that schools lacked appropriate infrastructure such as computers, particularly in rural areas where there are  
substandard classrooms, lack of telephones and laboratories.  
Responses from Heads and Deputy Heads on Causes of Non-Teaching and Learning of Computers.  
Figure 4.1: Responses from Heads and Deputy Heads on Causes of Non-Teaching and Learning of Computers.  
Figure 4.1 above indicates that poor funding and lack of trained personnel are the most prominent barriers to  
technology integration in schools, each reaching 100%. This suggests that institutions struggle primarily with  
securing financial resources to procure and maintain ICT tools and with ensuring the availability of skilled  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 261  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
staff capable of supporting digital learning. Such findings align with existing literature: according to Tondeur  
et al. (2017), inadequate funding directly limits hardware availability, software acquisition, and ongoing  
technical support, all of which are essential components of ICT implementation. Similarly, research by  
Buabeng-Andoh (2012) emphasizes that insufficiently trained personnel impede the effective use of digital  
tools, as teachers require both technical and pedagogical knowledge to integrate technology meaningfully into  
instruction. The moderately high levels of barriers related to lack of infrastructure (about 75%) and teacher  
attitudes (around 75%) further reinforce the idea that both structural limitations and perceptions toward  
technology shape the success of ICT adoption in educational settings.  
Heads of schools and their deputies also said that the situation of non-teaching and learning of computers in  
schools was a resulted of not having trained personnel who are specifically trained to teach computer studies.  
These two problems were also echoed by Mndzebele (2013) in a research carried in Swaziland on  
computerization in schools. Besides, heads of schools and their deputies also indicated that teachers have a  
negative attitude in the teaching of computer studies. Heads of schools and their deputies also pointed out that  
in some schools most of the teachers were familiar with the use of computers although in some schools the  
situation was not encouraging.  
The implication for practice is that addressing these barriers requires a multi-layered strategy that prioritizes  
investment in infrastructure, continuous professional development, and policy support. The relatively lower  
percentage for teacher familiarity with computers (around 50%) suggests that while familiarity is improving,  
significant gaps remain in teachers’ confidence and competence, aligning with Mishra and Koehler’s (2006)  
TPACK framework, which stresses the need for intertwined technological, pedagogical, and content  
knowledge. Improving teacher readiness through sustained training could positively influence attitudes, which  
Ertmer (1999) identifies as crucial “second-order barriers” that are harder to change than structural constraints.  
Thus, the findings imply that policymakers and school administrators should allocate funds strategically,  
enhance ICT infrastructure, and focus on capacity building to ensure equitable and effective technology  
integration in schools.  
Figure 4.2: Responses from Teachers on Causes of Non-Teaching of Computers  
Figure 4.2 indicates that lack of infrastructure, shortage of computers, and inadequate commitment from  
administrators are significant barriers to ICT integration, each scoring between 80% and 97%. In contrast, lack  
of interest among teachers is much lower at about 15%. This pattern illustrates that structural and institutional  
challenges are more pronounced than motivational issues among teachers. These findings are consistent with  
existing literature, which identifies infrastructural deficiencies and limited hardware availability as primary  
obstacles to ICT adoption in schools, particularly in developing contexts (Tondeur et al., 2017; Hennessy et al.,  
2010).  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 262  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Administrative support is critical in shaping the implementation of ICT policies, resource allocation, and the  
overall vision for technology use in education (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). The low percentage  
reflecting teacher interest suggests that while there is some motivation, teachers remain constrained by external  
barriers beyond their control. Thus, meaningful ICT integration demands systemic investments in  
infrastructure and resources, alongside strong leadership commitment from school administrators.  
Classroom observations indicated that many teachers struggled to effectively engage students due to a lack of  
resources and training. The observations were in line with Munthali (2004), who said that classrooms were  
equipped with out-dated equipment, and the absence of functional computers limited hands-on learning  
experiences. This situation was mirrored in the student performance data, where a correlation was evident  
between inadequate access to technology and low achievement levels in computer science. Students often  
expressed frustration over their limited ability to practice skills outside the classroom, which contributed to  
widespread computer illiteracy and a reluctance to pursue ICT-related studies.  
Additionally, assessments of teacher competencies highlighted gaps in both foundational knowledge and  
pedagogical techniques necessary for effective computer instruction. As was reported by Kafela (2018), many  
teachers may feel unprepared to teach computer science due to insufficient professional development  
opportunities. From the observations, this lack of training not only affected teachers’ instructional methods but  
also influenced their confidence levels, impacting student engagement further. The findings underscored the  
need for comprehensive teacher training programs and better infrastructure to create a conducive learning  
environment, emphasizing that addressing these issues is essential for improving the overall effectiveness of  
computer education in the region.  
More so, several systemic challenges related to curriculum alignment, teacher training programs, and ICT  
policy implementation where observed and in was noted that they hinder effective computer instruction. As  
was noted by Mtebe & Raisamo (2014), the curriculum often lacks coherence with existing ICT policies,  
leading to disconnection between what is taught and available technological resources Furthermore, many  
teachers reported insufficient training on ICT integration and lack of continuous professional development  
opportunities, which diminishes their confidence in delivering computer education effectively (Musarurwa,  
2011). The ICT policy implementation remains uneven, with urban schools often better equipped than rural  
counterparts, exacerbating disparities in educational quality (Mandoga et al., 2013). Moreover, the findings  
were in line with Lufuno (2013), who noted that. inadequate teacher training programs fail to address specific  
pedagogical techniques needed for effective ICT integration, leaving educators feeling unprepared. These  
findings suggest a pressing need for cohesive strategies that align curriculum, training, and policy frameworks  
to improve teachers' competencies and student outcomes in computer education.  
Strategies for Curbing Non-Teaching and Learning of Computers  
Respondents were asked to suggest strategies for mitigating the non-teaching and learning of computers in  
secondary schools in Chiwundura. They rated these strategies as not necessary, necessary, or extremely  
necessary.  
Teacher Training  
Figure 4.4 Responses on teacher training  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 263  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Figure 4.4 reflects that most respondents rated teacher training as a necessary strategy to address non-teaching  
and learning of computers. Handwritten comments from heads of schools, deputies, and teachers  
overwhelmingly emphasized a need for enhanced teacher training in computer education. This mirrors actions  
taken by the British government in 1966 to address a similar shortage of trained personnel for computer studies  
in schools (Merireng, 2013).  
Development and Acquisition of Computer Infrastructure  
Respondents from the four selected schools also highlighted the importance of developing computer  
infrastructure as a crucial step toward improving computer education in Chiwundura. Figure 4.5 below  
demonstrates the respondents' ratings regarding this need. Availability of hardware and software is essential  
for the effective adoption and integration of computer studies. In Swaziland, Mndzebele (2013) also identified  
acquisition of computer resources as a key strategy for enhancing educational outcomes.  
Figure 4.5 Responses on development and acquisition of computer infrastructure  
Furthermore, the absence of proper rooms for housing computer equipment was noted as a challenge in many  
African schools. Webb (2010) contends that integrating computer studies requires constructing special  
facilities, which may be a financial burden.  
Inclusion of Computerization Programs in National Budgets  
Figure 4.6 Responses on inclusion of schools computerisation programmes on national budgets  
Figure 4.6 indicates strong support from heads of schools and their deputies for including school  
computerization programs in national budgets. This suggests an urgent need for the Zimbabwean government  
to prioritize funding for these initiatives. Research indicates that inadequate funding hampers progress in  
teaching and learning of computers within African educational systems (Mwalongo, 2011).  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 264  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Relaxation of Import Laws on Computer Hardware  
Figure 4.7 Responses on relaxation of import laws on computer hardware  
Respondents also advocated for relaxing import laws on computer hardware, as acquiring equipment locally is  
often prohibitively expensive. Figure 4.7 presents their ratings regarding this suggestion, with overwhelming  
support for government action in this area. Mkandawire (2004) similarly urged for relaxing import restrictions  
to facilitate access to affordable computers for schools.  
Introducing Electrification Programs in Schools  
Figure 4.8 Responses on introducing electrification programme in schools  
Figure 4.8 shows that many respondents believe the government should implement electrification programs,  
particularly for rural schools in Chiwundura. Most respondents indicated that these initiatives are vital for  
schools lacking electricity, enhancing the capacity for computer education. Musarurwa (2011) highlighted the  
widespread lack of electricity in rural schools, while Mndzebele (2013) pointed out that without electricity, the  
use of computers is unfeasible.  
Training School Administrators on Computerization  
Figure 4.9 Training of school administrators on computerization in schools.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 265  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
The need for training school administrators on effectively implementing computer studies was also  
emphasized by respondents. Figure 4.9 reflects strong support for this strategy, aligning with Morton (1997),  
who noted that effective leadership is critical in educational settings. Mndzebele (2013) asserted that  
committed leadership is essential to overcome bureaucratic barriers, enabling successful technology  
integration.  
RECOMMENDATIONS  
The researcher made the following recommendations;  
The study recommended that the government should ensure that all the teacher training colleges and  
universities make it compulsory that all their students take computer studies as one of their major  
subjects.  
The study also recommended that the government should introduce the electrification programme in  
schools especially those in rural setups such as Chiwundura.  
Apart from that, the study recommended that the government of Zimbabwe should incorporate  
computerisation programmes when budgeting for other national activities since so that they can  
capacitate schools in the implementation of the teaching and learning of computers.  
Furthermore, the study recommended that administrator in secondary schools in Chiwundura should  
now priorities the implementation of the teaching and learning of computer studies when making their  
budgets, hence the need for the acquisition and development of computer infrastructure in their schools.  
Recommendations for further study  
Further study is recommended:  
To conduct similar research across all secondary schools in Chiwundura Cluster or even across Gweru  
to determine if the challenges are widespread or unique to the four schools studied  
To assess how curriculum design, teaching methods, and assessment strategies influence the effective  
teaching of computer studies in secondary schools.  
REFERENCES  
1. Adebayo, A. (2016). Challenges of ICT in education: A case study of Nigeria. International Journal of  
Research Studies in Education, 5(2), 23-38. DOI: 10.5861/ijrse.2016.1402  
2. AERS (2008). How Schools in Scotland Measure Their Own Progress? Scotland.  
3. Afful-Dadzie, A., & Boakye, K. (2020). Bridging the digital divide in education in Africa: Challenges  
and solutions. International Journal of Educational Development, 76, 102-116.  
4. BECTA (2007). Technology and Social Shock. New Brunswick: NJ, Rutgers University Press.  
5. Bhaitacherje, H(2012). ‘Microcomputers in the Classroom: Dreams and Realities’. (Report No. 319  
Baltimore, M.D: Johns Hopkins University, Centre for Social Organisations of Schools.  
6. Bradley, R(1995). Understanding Computer Science for Advanced Level. London: Stanley Thomas  
(Ltd)  
7. Carnoy, A(2004). ‘The Computerisation of Society’. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Quality Education  
Data, Inc. (1984). ‘The 1983-84 Microcomputer Usage in Schools Survey’, Denver Colurado.  
8. Chaka, C. (2015). Assessing the effectiveness of computer education in Zimbabwean secondary  
schools: A case study of Harare. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research, 2(1), 55-  
69.  
9. Chikasha, E. (2019). Infrastructure challenges in Zimbabwe’s educational sector: A focus on ICT  
incorporation. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(14), 76-85.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 266  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
10. Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York,  
R. L. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. US Government Printing Office.  
11. Countries. www.people.cornell.edu.  
12. Demputte, C., De Witte, K., & De Vries, J. (2020). The impact of digital skills on labor market  
outcomes. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 67, 100516.  
13. Deyuan, X.M (2000). ‘Morden Communications Technologies Are Helpful for Developing  
14. Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2013). Teacher technology professional development.  
Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(4), 353-370.  
15. Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Resources, Goals, and Teacher Beliefs: A  
Theoretical Framework for Integrating Technology in Teacher Education. TechTrends, 54(5), 37-46.  
16. Green, K. (2000). ‘Equals in Computer Technology: An Intervention’. AEDS- The Monitor,  
17. Guess, A., MacKinnon, P., & Morris, H. (2021). Exploring the digital divide: Understanding barriers to  
technology adoption. Technology in Society, 64, 101469.  
18. Gumbo, M. T. (2020). Policies supporting technology integration in education: A review of the  
Zimbabwean context. African Journal of Educational Studies in Mathematics and Sciences, 16(1), 114-  
124.  
19. Hennessy, S., Harrison, D., & Wamakote, L. (2020). Teacher factors influencing classroom use of ICT  
in sub-Saharan Africa. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(2), 174-191.  
20. Houghton, L., Delaunay, A., & Routh, I. (2021). Equity in digital access: Addressing the challenges of  
computer illiteracy. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(3), 465-490.  
21. Hwang, G. J., Wu, P. H., & Tsai, C. C. (2020). A collaborative technology-enhanced learning system  
for computer literacy education. Computers & Education, 157, 103967.  
22. James, J.G(2004). The Case for Computer Literacy. Daedalus 112(2), 211-230.  
23. Johnson, M.E and Long, E.D. (2000). ‘Trend in Educational Computing: Decreasing Interest and the  
Changing Focus of Instruction’. Educational Researcher, 15(5), 21-26.  
24. Kafele, B. K. (2016). The teacher 50: Critical questions for inspiring classroom excellence. ASCD.  
25. Killen, I.A(2012). ‘Innovation Diffusion: A New Perspective’. NY: Meihuen.  
26. Lu, Y., & Zhang, J. (2018). The role of technology in national development: A review. International  
Journal of Technology and Globalisation, 10(2), 85-100.  
27. Mahlknecht, M., Dlamini, N., & Winks, P. (2021). The impact of socioeconomic factors on technology  
access in Zimbabwe: Implications for education. Journal of African Education, 7(2), 125-136.  
28. Makombe, P. (2020). Teacher training in ICT education: Challenges and prospects in Zimbabwe.  
International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication  
Technology, 16(4), 24-38.  
29. Mandell, S.L(1986). Working with Application Software/ Apple ii2.iB Version. New York:West  
Publishing Company.  
30. Mansions, E. (2017). Cultural perceptions of digital learning in African education: Contextualizing  
computer literacy. African Journal of Educational Studies in Mathematics and Sciences, 13(1), 45-57.  
31. Mayer H.S. (2001). ‘Opening Remarks’. A Paper Presented at the International Expert  
New Technologies: New Social Responsibilities and Forms of Intervention.  
Meeting on  
32. Merireng, D(2013). ‘An Urgent Need: Equal Access of Computers for the Poor’. A Paper  
33. Mingaine, T(2013). ‘Technological Revolution, Social Power and Welfare’. A Paper  
Presented at  
the International Expert Meeting on New Technologies: New York Social Responsibilities and Forms  
of Intervention, in Berlin West.  
34. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for  
Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.  
35. Mkandawire, W(2004). An Investigation in the Effects of Computers on the Residents of Chiwundura  
Business Centre. ZOU: Harare, Zimbabwe.  
36. Mndzebele, J.G(2013). ‘Ideas About Inequality in Computer Learning’. AEDS- The Monitor, 24(7-8),  
11-13, 26.  
37. Morton,B(1997). Introduction to Information Processing; New York: Mcgraw Hill Book Co.  
38. Mtebe, J. S., & Raisamo, R. (2014). Challenges and practices of implementing blended learning in  
Tanzanian higher education institutions. International Journal of Education and Development using  
Information and Communication Technology, 10(3), 41-54.  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 267  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
39. Mwebaza, N. (2017). The role of information and communication technology in education in Zambia:  
An overview. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and  
Communication Technology, 13(1), 4-14.  
40. Osakwe, J(2012). “The Changing Information Environments”, London: Paul Elek.  
41. Osin, L(1998). ‘Computers in Education in Developing Countries: Why and How?’ Education and  
Technology Series, Vol.3, No.1 Washington DC: World Bank.  
42. Pelgrum, W. J. (2001). Obstacles to the integration of ICT in education: Results from a worldwide  
educational assessment. Computers & Education, 37(2), 163-178.  
43. Presented at the HUSITA Conference in Birmingham, England.in Berlin (West).  
44. Sanders, J(2011). ‘The Computer Gender Gap: Close it While There’s Time’. AEDS- The Monitor,  
4(7-8), 18-26.  
45. Terrill, L(2000). Benefits and Challenges in Using Computers and the Internet with Adult Learners.  
46. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.  
Harvard University Press.  
47. Warschauer, M., & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New technology and digital worlds: Analyzing the digital  
divide. Review of Research in Education, 34(1), 179-205.  
48. Webb, R.W(2010). Planning for Computer Literacy. Journal of Higher Education, 56(2), 161-171.  
49. Welzel, C. (2015). The role of education in shaping attitudes toward technology: Evidence from a  
cross-national survey. International Sociology, 30(6), 575-595.  
50. Willims, S.S(2006). Computer Education. Washington, DC: US. Government Printing Office.National  
Institute of Education.  
51. Munthali, A. C. (2004). Teacher professional development in Malawi: Issues and challenges.  
University of Malawi, Centre for Educational Research and Training.  
52. Kafela, M. (2018). "Teachers' perceptions of the effectiveness of professional development in  
integrating ICT in Zambian schools." Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 26(3), 377-397.  
53. Mandoga, R., & Nyoni, T. (2013). The availability and usage of computers in Zimbabwean secondary  
schools. Zimbabwe Journal of Educational Research, 25(2), 45-62.  
54. Mtebe, J. S., & Raisamo, R. (2014). Student attitudes towards the use of Moodle: A case of a  
University in Tanzania. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and  
Communication Technology, 10(3), 70-79.  
55. Musarurwa, M. (2011). The role of technology in improving teacher effectiveness: Perspectives from  
rural Zimbabwean schools. African Journal of Education and Technology, 1(2), 53-64.  
56. Lufuno, M. M. (2013). The state of ICT integration in the Zambian education system: Opportunities  
and challenges. Zambia Journal of Education Management and Policy Studies, 1(1), 15-23.  
Authors Contributions  
1. Developed the content of the study  
2. Carried out data analysis and interpretation.  
3. Contributed to the integration of educational theories  
4. Contributed to enriching the content  
5. Contributed in content development  
Conflicts of Interest  
There was no conflict of interest among the researchers  
Funding  
There was no external sponsorship for the study  
www.ijltemas.in  
Page 268