INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Moss as Biomonitors of Vehicular Emissions Along Akure-Ilesa and  
Ife-Ibadan Roads in South Western Nigeria.  
Ekundayo, T. O.; Obembe, O. A.  
Department of Plant Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Adekunle Ajasin University  
Akungba Akoko. P.M.B. 001, Akungba, Ondo State.  
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1412000024  
Received: 30 January 2024; Accepted: 10 February 2024; Published: 30 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Vehicular emission is one of the major sources of pollution to the roadside vegetation and soil. Degree of  
pollution by vehicles depends on the traffic congestions on the road. Higher quantity of environmental pollution  
could pose several hazards to humans, animals and plants. This study investigated the impact of vehicular  
emission on lower plant (moss) along Akure-Ilesa and Ife-Ibadan roads. The study aims at: quantify the heavy  
metal (HM) load in the moss and compare the degree of pollution of Akure-Ilesa road with Ife-Ibadan road.  
Passive and active methods of biomonitoring was carried out using moss as indicator, digestion of the sample  
was done using aqua-regia method of digestion and the investigated metals: lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium  
(Cd), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were analyzed with the use of Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS).  
Results of these study reveal considerable quantity of the investigated metals present in the indicator material  
(moss) and it also shows that, Akure-Ilesa road have higher concentration of these metals than Ife-Ibadan road.  
It can be concluded from these study that vehicular emission contributed to the HM load of roadside lower plants.  
It is recommended that controlled vehicular emission systems be adopted to reduce emissions and improve fuel  
efficiency.  
INTRODUCTION  
Environment is defined as the whole of circumstances surrounding a single organism or group of organisms  
particularly; combination of some external conditions that can affect and control the growth, development and  
survival of organisms (Farlex Incorporated, 2005). It consists of the flora, fauna, the abiotic factors, and the  
aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric habitats. The environment is measured in terms of the most substantial  
aspects like air, water and food, and the less substantial, or the less important, the communities we live in (Gore,  
1997).  
As a result of human activities and some other animals in the environment, pollutants are discharged in quantities  
that affect the environment. A pollutant is any material/substance in the environment, which causes obnoxious  
effects, impairing the wellbeing of the environment, slowing down the quality of life and may ultimately lead to  
death. Such a substance has to be available in the environment beyond a set or acceptance limit, which could be  
either a desirable or tolerable limit. Therefore, environmental pollution is the presence of a pollutant in the  
environment; air; water; and soil, which may be lethal or toxic and will affect or harm the living things living in  
such polluted environment (Farlex Incorporated, 2005).  
The remarkable increase in mobilization of human beings in the society has lead to an unusual rise in vehicular  
traffic on the major road ways. The vehicles release a considerable quantity of exhaust emission which consists  
of poisonous gases such as carbon II oxide, sulphur IV oxide, oxides of nitrogen etc. Seventy-five percent of the  
air pollution occurs through exhaust gases from automobiles. The emissions from the vehicles cause undesirable  
effects on plants, animals, soil and other environmental constituents (Arvind and Chandan, 2004).  
Air quality can be monitored through measuring the pollutants directly in the air or in deposition, through  
constructing models depicting the distribution of the pollutants, or through the use of biomonitors (Markert et  
al., 1997). Markert et al. (1997) described bioindicator/biomonitor as an organism, or part of it, that indicates  
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the occurrence of pollutants on the basis of precise symptoms, reactions, morphological changes or  
concentrations.  
Biomonitors can be grouped according to the way in which the reaction is manifested: reaction indicators, which  
are sensitive to air pollutants and which are used principally in studying the effects of pollutants on species  
make-up, and on physiological and ecological performance, and accumulation indicators that readily accumulate  
a variety of pollutants and are therefore used principally when monitoring the quantity of pollutants and their  
spread. source of organisms can further be used to categorize biomonitors into passive biomonitors, in which  
organisms that grow naturally in the study area are monitored and active biomonitors, in which the organisms  
are introduced into the research area under controlled situations for a definite period of time (Markert et al.,  
1997).  
The use of plants as indicators of air pollution has long been accepted. Many plants respond swiftly to low  
concentrations of air pollutants in predictable ways. As a result, plants are regarded to be more susceptible to air  
pollutants than humans and other animals as they are continuously exposed to air pollutants. Among diverse  
plant organs, leaves by virtue of their location, spread and structure are the main receivers of pollutants and a  
number of studies have proved that most noticeable effects of air pollution are expressed by foliage than any  
other parts of the plant. Being, the outer most layer, the epidermis is relatively more sensitive to hazards of air  
pollutants than other tissues.  
Mosses are cryptogams that flourish very well in a humid climate. Ectohydric mosses have been used as  
biomonitors – in most cases, terricolous bryophytes. They have many properties that make them appropriate for  
monitoring air pollutants (Onianwa, 2000; Zechmeister and Hohenwallner, 2006). These species acquire  
nutrients from wet and dry deposition and they do not possess real roots. Nutrient uptake from atmosphere is  
enhanced by their poorly developed cuticle, large surface to wet ratio, and their pattern of growing in groups.  
Other qualifying properties include a slow growth rate, undeveloped vascular bundles, ease of sampling, and the  
possibility to determine concentrations in the annual growth segments (Onianwa, 2000). Air pollutants are  
discharged on mosses in aqueous solution, in gaseous form or attached to particles.  
The release of some substances into the environment by vehicles leads to the pollution or contamination of the  
environment. The rate and amount of pollution due to vehicular emission cannot be estimated. Hence, this study  
attempts to determine the accumulation of heavy metals in the studied plant (mosses: active and passive study)  
along high vehicular traffic roads in Nigeria using Akure-Ilesa and Ife-Ibadan roads as a case study. It is expected  
that the findings obtained from this study will widen the knowledge on the danger of heavy metals pollution in  
the environment by providing information on its spread; it may also provide information on the danger of  
roadside farming-a common practice among peasant rural farmers.  
MATERIALS AND METHODS  
Study Area  
Two major roads were used for this study; Akure-Ilesa road and Ife-Ibadan road. Akure-Ilesa and Ife-Ibadan  
roads are located within the South Western part of Nigeria with different longitude and latitude locations. Akure:  
lat 7 15N and long 5 5E, Ilesa: lat 7 37N and long 4 40N, Ife: lat 7 30N and long 4 31E and Ibadan: lat 7 22N  
and long 3 58E. Akure-Ilesa road a distance of about 50 km and not dualised while Ife-Ibadan road a distance of  
about 48 km and the road dualised, both roads were very busy. These research roads lead to different major cities  
like Abuja, Benin, Ado Ekiti, Lagos and to some other parts of the country; this could be easily taken as the  
reason for the high proportion of the traffic of these roads.  
Traffic Density  
A 4-day 8 hours’ personal traffic count was conducted from 7-10 am, 12-3 pm and 5-7 pm at locations along the  
two separated roads to know the volume of traffic.  
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Study material  
Moss sample growing naturally in another environment (non-native) was collected and introduced using a moss  
bag into the two study sites in October 2013 during the rainy season and collected/harvested after a period of six  
months (April 2014). The heavy metal load of the moss was analyzed before the introduction and after harvesting  
using Aqua regia method of digestion and the heavy metals analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer  
(AAS). The moss samples that were encountered on the study area serve as passive biomonitors.  
Digestion of Plant Samples  
Aqua-regia method of digestion was used; 3 ml of Nitric acid (HNO3) and 1ml of Hydrochloric acid (HCl) to 2.5  
g of each plant sample were added. The digestion was carried out on hot plate inside fume cupboard. The digests  
were allowed to cool to room temperature, then filtered with No 42 filter paper and made up to 25 ml of solution  
with distilled water (Mulgrew and Williams, 2000).  
Determination of Heavy Metals in the Moss Sample  
The samples were subjected to Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) using GBC A Vanta PM Version  
2.02 for metal analysis (Mulgrew and Williams, 2000). The metals investigated were: Pb, Zn, Cd, Cr and Cu.  
Data Analysis  
The data generated from this study were analyzed statistically by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences  
(SPSS). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant differences among the concentrations  
of the heavy metals and the means separated with Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT).  
RESULTS  
The points chosen for the traffic count survey were Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA) gate  
junction and Ife/Ipetumodun junction. The traffic along the single lane Akure-Ilesa road was heavy consisting  
of 73% (494) cars, 5% (39) trucks, 17% (112) buses while luxury buses and pick-ups have 5% (36) totally 681  
vehicles per hour. On the other hand, the double lane Ife-Ibadan road traffic was also heavy consisting of 59%  
(534) cars, 26% (245) buses, 10% (90) trucks while pick-ups and luxury buses have 5% (39) totaling 908 vehicles  
per hour (Table 1).  
Moss sample were encountered at a point along Akure-Ilesa road in October 2013 towards the end of rainy  
season and at two point in April 2014 towards the end of dry season. It was discovered that, there was a slight  
increase in Pb and Cr contents of the moss towards the end of the dry season, while slight decrease was observed  
in Cd, Cu and Zn contents. When the metals were statistically compared, it was discovered that the metals were  
statistically different at p>0.05. (Table 2). Also, in Ife-Ibadan road, moss sample were encountered in two points  
each during the two seasons and the heavy metal contents in the dry season was found to be more than the rainy  
season when statistically compared (Table 3).  
Table 4 shows the heavy metal concentration in the introduced moss (active biomonitor). The samples were  
analyzed before introduction into the study site and analyses done after six months of introduction reveals a  
considerable accumulation of the investigated metals. The metals were subjected to statistical analysis and it was  
revealed that the metals were significantly different at p>0.05.  
Table 1: Traffic counts along Akure-Ilesa and Ife-Ibadan roads per hour  
Location/type of vehicle  
Akure-Ilesa volume count  
Cars  
Trucks  
Buses  
Luxury buses and pick-ups  
494  
39  
112  
36  
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73 %  
5 %  
17 %  
5 %  
Percentage occurrence  
Ife-Ibadan volume count  
Percentage occurrence  
534  
90  
254  
39  
59 %  
10 %  
26 %  
5 %  
Table 2: Heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) the encountered moss along Akure - Ilesa road in October  
2013 and April 2014  
Heavy metal concentration (mg/kg)  
Sample Location  
Pb  
Cr  
Cd  
Cu  
Zn  
0.311  
0.214  
0.192  
0.158  
1.380  
October  
Point 1  
2013  
October 2013  
0.311  
0.218  
0.183  
0.139  
1.342  
April 2014 Point  
1
0.312  
0.214  
0.193  
0.159  
1.381  
Point 2  
Mean ± S.D  
0.312±0.001c  
0.216±0.003b  
0.188±0.007b  
0.149±0.141a  
1.362±0.028d  
Table 3: Heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) in the encountered moss along Ife - Ibadan in October 2013  
and April 2014  
Heavy metal concentration (mg/Kg)  
Sample Location  
Pb  
Cr  
Cd  
Cu  
Zn  
0.241  
0.201  
0.102  
0.032  
0.420  
October  
Point 1  
2013  
0.142  
0.191  
0.163  
0.070  
0.488  
Point 2  
Mean ± S.D  
0.192±0.070b  
0.341  
0.196±0.007b  
0.311  
0.133±0.043ab  
0.110  
0.051±0.027a  
0.052  
0.454±0.048c  
0.920  
April 2014 Point  
1
0.142  
0.201  
0.163  
0.070  
0.488  
Point 2  
Mean ± S.D  
0.242± 0.141b  
0.256± 0.078b  
0.137±0.037ab  
0.061± 0.013a  
0.704± 0.305c  
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Table 4: Heavy metal contents of the introduced moss sample (Active monitoring) at introduction and  
after six months of introduction along Akure-Ilesa and Ife-Ibadan Roads  
Heavy metal concentration (mg/kg)  
Pb  
Cr  
Cd  
Cu  
Zn  
At introduction 0.211  
0.204  
0.120  
0.118  
1.280  
After 6 months  
Akure-Ilesa  
Road 1  
0.341  
0.311  
0.211  
0.162  
1.432  
2
0.342  
0.301  
0.263  
0.170  
1.488  
3
0.342  
0.356  
0.237  
0.161  
1.407  
4
0.341  
0.302  
0.213  
0.162  
1.410  
5
0.401  
0.314  
0.242  
0.162  
1.420  
Mean ± S.D  
0.357±0.030c  
0.315  
0.321±0.024c  
0.320  
0.238±0.021b  
0.194  
0.164±0.004a  
0.176  
1.437±0.036d  
1.400  
Ife-Ibadan  
Road 1  
2
0.381  
0.241  
0.196  
0.171  
1.420  
3
0.316  
0.242  
0.197  
0.173  
1.405  
4
0.341  
0.311  
0.201  
0.164  
1.426  
5
0.320  
0.312  
0.201  
0.159  
1.436  
Mean ± S.D  
0.340±0.030b  
0.296±0.037b  
0.198±0.003a  
0.166±0.008a  
1.421±0.015d  
DISCUSSION  
The incredible increase in mobilization of human society has lead to exceptional rise in vehicular traffic on the  
major road ways. The vehicles release a substantial quantity of exhaust emission which consists of poisonous  
gases like carbon monoxide, sulphurdioxide, oxides of nitrogen etc. 75 % of the air pollution takes place through  
exhaust gases from automobiles (Chandra and Kumar, 2004) The emissions from the vehicles resulted into  
adverse effects on plants, animals, soil and other environmental components. The tremendous increase in the use  
of vehicles for day to day mobilization in most developing countries, together with lack of emission standards  
in these countries, has contributed a great deal of concern over vehicular pollution (Amusan et al., 2003; Ibrahim,  
2009).  
The idea of using mosses to estimate atmospheric heavy metal deposition was developed in the late 1960s by  
Rühling and Tyler (1968). It is based on the fact that mosses, especially the carpet-forming species, obtain most  
of their nutrients directly from precipitation and dry deposition; there is little uptake of metals from the substrate.  
The moss use for these study was able to obtain/accumulate the investigated metals to a considerable level which  
prove the ability of mosses in absorbing atmospheric particles from direct precipitation and dry deposition.  
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Zn was found to have the highest concentration of all the investigated metals in the study area, followed by Pb  
and Cu was found to have the least concentration. This is comprehensible since tyre wears released zinc (Kabata-  
Pendias and Pendias, 1994). In addition, Zn is used in brake linings owing to their heat conducting properties  
and as such released during mechanical abrasion of vehicles and from engine oil combustion and tyres of motor  
vehicle (Dolan et al., 2006; El-Gamai, 2000; Hjortenkrans et al., 2007). The high concentration of Zn in this  
study may also be due to number of vehicles that pass through the studied roads. USEPA (1996) also reported  
that lubricant oil adds Zn to soils closest to major roads in metropolitan areas. Natural occurrences such as  
volcanic eruption, forest fires, dust storms and sea spray also add to the continuous cycling of Zn through nature.  
The higher level of Pb might be from the deposition from automobile exhaust since most petroleum fuel is made  
up of tetraethyl lead as antiknock (Lenntech Water Treatment and Air Purification, 2004). Large amount of  
fertilizers is frequently added to soils in intensive farming systems to supply adequate NPK for crop  
development. The compounds used to provide these fundamentals contain trace quantities of heavy metals (e.g  
Cd and Pb) as impurities, which after persistent fertilizer application may extensively increase their content in  
the soil (Jones and Jarvis, 1981). The use of certain phosphate fertilizers ineffectually adds Cd and other  
potentially toxic elements to the soil such as F, Hg and Pb (Raven et al., 1998) these may also contribute to the  
high level of Pb in the study area. Moreover, some common pesticides used quite at length in agriculture and  
horticulture in the past contained considerable concentrations of metals. Lead arsenate was applied in fruit  
orchards for many years to control some parasitic insects (McLaughlin et al., 2000).  
The moss sample used as biomonitor (both passive and active) was effective because they were able to  
accumulate the investigated heavy metals within the short period of its introduction into the study area. These  
findings supported the report of Zechmeister et al. (2003a), who reported that mosses are excellent biomonitors  
as they possess numerous properties that make them appropriate for monitoring air pollutant. Onianwa (2000)  
reported that nutrient uptake from the environment in mosses is enhanced by their poorly developed cuticle,  
large surface to wet ratio and their pattern of growing in groups. Air pollutant are deposited on mosses in aqueous  
solution, gaseous form or attached to particles (Onianwa, 2000). The concentration of heavy metals recorded in  
the moss sample after introduction with values higher than the recommended daily intake by World Health  
Organization/Food and Agricultural Organization (WHO/FAO) is an indication of the pollution level of the  
environment under consideration.  
The investigated heavy metals were found to accumulate more during the dry season than during the rainy  
season, this could be suggestive of leaching of these heavy metals by rainfall into the sub-soil layers as  
researchers have demonstrated that heavy metals have the ability of being leached out when poorly adsorbed to  
topsoil (Zanders et al., 1999). Imray and Langley (2001) also reported that changes in concentration of heavy  
metals overtime in soil layers may occur due to factors such as breakdown and leaching. The moss sample  
accumulate more metals in Akure-Ilesa road than Ife-Ibadan road, hence, Akure-Ilesa road can be described to  
be more polluted than Ife-Ibadan road, this is understandable as traffic density was lower in Akure – Ilesa road  
but more congested due to being a single lane road as compared to Ife-Ibadan road (from traffic count).  
CONCLUSION  
Heavy metal accumulation by plant tissues, its presence in the soil persistently or its presence in ground waters  
is not a healthy sign for the environment. Controlling air pollution from motor vehicles is essential if the adverse  
effects will be nip in the bud. The reason for different concentrations of heavy metals in the moss used for this  
study may be due to the density of the traffic. The level of contamination was more pronounced in Akure-Ilesa  
road than Ife-Ibadan road. The use of moss for the monitoring of the pollution status of the study area has proved  
useful. This has also complemented several reports of the usefulness of mosses in assessing pollution status of  
the environment.  
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