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The Influence of Clay Minerals on the Geotechnical Behaviour of

Some Red Tropical Soils from Dunde and Environ, Northeastern

Nigeria

Ambrose E. Utsalo

, Kingsley O. Ejairu

Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies, Western Delta University, Oghara, Delta State, Nigeria.

Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies, Western Delta University, Oghara, Delta State, Nigeria

*Correspondence Author

DOI :

https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1412000066

Received: 17 December 2025; Accepted: 26 December 2025; Published: 05 January 2026

ABSTRACT:

The properties of clay that influence the soil geotechnical behaviour are fundamentally determined by the physio-

chemical characteristics of the composite minerals and the relative proportion in which the minerals are present.

It requires a number of sophisticated laboratory equipment and time to determine these characteristics. However,

an alternative and all-encompassing method which combines simple and normal laboratory tests that gives a

quantitative measure of the composite effect of all the basic properties of clay, termed Clay Colloidal Activity

was used in this study. It is an index property, the ratio of plasticity index to clay fractions that combines the

Atterberg Limits and the particle size distribution, computed by using the normal routine laboratory tests. In this

study, the Clay Colloidal Activity of soil samples collected from Dunde, Belel and Sorau in Maiha Local

Government Area of Adamawa State, Northeastern Nigeria were tested. The moisture content of the soils ranged

from 10.3% to 12.6%. Plasticity Index for the soils studied ranges from 16 to 25, while the ratio of Moisture

Content to Liquid Limit was from 0.21 and 0.35. These values suggested low risk of liquefaction thereby

mitigating the possibilities of danger and associated unfavorable engineering issues. Dunde has Colloidal

Activity value of 0.80, Sorau has 1.25 and Bele has 1.09. All of them were found to have clay of moderate values

of Clay Colloidal Activity, and are considered normal clays that may not pose danger to engineering projects.

Key words: Clay, physicochemical, composite effect, clay colloidal activity, Atterberg Limits.

Authors’ Contributions

A.E. Utsalo was involved in the conceptualization of the idea, data acquisition, and analysis. K.O. Ejairu was

involved in the interpretation, drafting, proofreading, and revising the manuscript for publication. Both authors

have consented to the submission, and subsequent publication of the article.

INTRODUCTION

Red tropical Soils are among the major construction materials needed for infrastructure projects in Nigeria. They

exist naturally, abundant, assessable and relatively cheap. However, they are problematic and exhibit

performance issue (Okagbue and Onyeobi, 1999; Utsalo et al., 2023). Mechanical instability and thermal

instability are some of the associated problems identified. These have been linked to their mode of formation

and mineralogy; and as such, the soils have been found to deviate in terms of engineering behaviour, from

expectations of standard soil mechanics (Malomo, 1977). Despite these problems, dangers associated with the

soils can be averted if the physico-chemical characteristics of the constituent minerals of the soils, which can be

determined is tested and known prior to construction works.

Difficulties have been found to associate with the evaluation of the geotechnical behaviour of these soils, because

the laboratory equipment needed for the analysis of their physicochemical parameters cannot easily be assessed,

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but with the clay colloidal activity, such difficulties and associated time factor are mitigated. The presence of

active or problem clays that may pose danger in construction may be indicated by high values of clay colloidal

activity. With the information obtained, catastrophe can be averted by taking well guided decisions.

Location of Study Area

The study area is delineated by latitudes 09

37’ 00’’ N and 09

40’ 00’’ N; and longitude 13

23’ 00’’ E and 13

15’ 0” E 9 (Figure 1); and is located in Maiha Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Northeastern Nigeria.

Specifically, Dunde, Sorau and Belel from where the test samples used for the work were collected experience

warm savannah tropical climate, with two well defined seasons (rainy and dry seasons). The rainy season

stretches from May to October while the dry season occupies the period from November to April and having a

mean annual rainfall of 900 mm to 1,500 mm (Adzandeh et al., 2024). The climate gives an idea of the

environmental conditions under which the basement rocks weather to form the red tropical soils under

investigation. Coordinates of the sample locations are presented in table 1.

Table 1: Sample Locations, coordinates and Geological Settings

SAMPLE

LOCATION

LOCAL GOVT.

AREA

COORDINATES

N E

GEOLOGIC

SETTING

Dunde

Maiha

37’60”

23’60”

Basement

Sorau

Maiha

45’0”

15’0”

Basement

Belel

Maiha

39’30”

13’31”

Basement

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Showing Sampling Points, indicated as L1, L2, and L3.

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Geological Setting

Adamawa State is situated partly on the basement of Northern Nigeria (undifferentiated granites) and partly on

the sedimentary basin of the Benue trough composed of sandstone, clay and clayey sand. The sample locations

are sited on the older granite of the basement area overlained mainly by red tropical soils. The lithologic profiles

in the three sampled locations were similar. At Dunde, about 100m from the bank of Mayo Pandi, a seasonal

stream that flows through Dunde village (on the Cameroon side), the test pit dug through the overburden

intercepted fairly weathered basement rock at 2m depth and exposed fractured flesh colour porphyritic granite.

The fairly weathered granite is expected to rest on the fresh basement rocks also expected to be the continuation

of an underlying porphyritic granite.

Evidences from the test pits, borrow pits and outcrops reveal that the basement rocks here are mainly varieties

of granite overlain with red tropical soils and weathered basement materials. The general lithologic profile

exhibits reddish brown top humus soil, reddish grey coarse gritty clayey soil, weathered flesh colour porphyritic

granite and fresh flesh colour porphyritic granite (Figure 2). This is replicated in other locations studied. Soils

here are generally coarse grained with pebbles of quartz and feldspar; and are slightly clayey.

Figure 2: The General Lithologic Profile of Dunde and Environ

In some other locations, it is possible that the flesh colour porphyritic granite could be replaced with any other

basement crystalline rock.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The investigation involved both field and laboratory works.

Field Work

The field work entailed the taking of in-situ speedy moisture content test, and the study and analysis of the

geologic conditions of outcrops, borrow pits and lithologic profiles as seen from fresh test pits; and collection of

fresh soil samples from test pits for appropriate laboratory tests and analyses. Disturbed samples collected were

packed in polythene bags, sealed, well labeled, location and field names accurately inscribed and transported to

the laboratory.

Laboratory Studies

Disturbed samples collected were subjected to classification, mechanical and engineering tests in the laboratory

in line with established standards; British Standards Institution (1990, 1981), to improve on the field

identification, classification and nomenclature. The tests conducted include wet sieving, hydrometer and

Atterberg Limits tests. Prior to wet sieving, the samples were air dried and treated with sodium

hexametaphosphate solution to disperse the clay fraction from the coarser soil grains. Each sample was spread

on a sample tray, soaked with the dispersant solution and stirred for adequate dispersion of the clay size particles.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Moisture Content

Moisture Content of the lithologies sampled were tested in the field using the speedy moisture tester. The

moisture content of the soils ranged from 10.3% to 12.6% (Table 2). The test was conducted in June when the

rainy season was just setting in, thus the increase in the natural moisture content of the soils.

Table 2: Ratio of Moisture Content to Liquid Limit

SAMPLE

MC/LL

(%)

12.6

0.35

10.3

0.21

11.5

0.26

Clayey soil's susceptibility to liquefaction was indicated by the ratio of Moisture Content to Liquid Limit

(MC/LL). At MC/LL = or > 0.85, the soil has the tendency to liquefy; and this phenomenon reduces the shear

strength of the soil and subsequent structural failure.

Atterberg Limits

Atterberg Limits comprises Liquid and Plastic Limits from which the Plasticity Index was computed. The Plastic

Index is a major parameter used in the computation of clay colloidal activity used in predicting the geotechnical

behaviour of the soils. The Atterberg Limits influence the geotechnical behaviour based on the variation in the

moisture content of the soil. The Plasticity Index is an indicator of soil's potential to resist liquefaction. The

Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index values of the soils are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Atterberg Limits of the Soils Studied

SAMPLE

LL (%)

PL (%)

20.0

24.0

20.0

At the Plasticity Index of PI = or < 12 and MC/LL = or > 0.85, liquefaction becomes imminent. Plasticity Index

for the soils studied ranges from 16 to 25 while the ratio of MC/LL is 0.21 to 0.35 suggestive of low risk of

liquefaction thereby mitigating the possibilities of danger and associated unfavorable engineering issues. Moses

et al. (2006) reported the possibility of the occurrence of liquefaction in depths hidden from the surface which

can cause structural failure of projects located within or above the substratum directly involved.

Swelling, Compressibility, Consolidation and Plasticity Potentials

The soils have intermediate Plasticity and Compressibility as shown on the Casagrande chart, Figure 3. This

indicates that the risk of excessive swelling and contraction is not high. DU, BE and SO contain inorganic clays

of intermediate plasticity.

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Figure 3: Plasticity of the Soils

Clay Colloidal Activity

Clay colloidal activity of the soils studied was determined by the ratio of the Plasticity Index to clay fraction.

This parameter categorizes clayey soils as containing active, normal and inactive clays.

𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥

𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

With this, the clays are classified into three classes as,

Inactive clays - Activity < 0.75

Normal clays - Activity 0.75 - 1.25s

Active clays - Activity > 1.25

Clay Colloidal Activity

All the soils Studied have normal clays. DU has Colloidal Activity value of 0.80, SO has 1.25 and BE has 1.09.

This information is contained in Table 4.

Table 4: Clay Colloidal Activity of the soils

SOIL

CLAY FRACTION (%)

CLAY COLLOIDAL ACTIVITY

CLASS TYPE

0.80

Normal

1.25

Normal

1.09

Normal

The clay colloidal activity values obtained for the soils corroborate the presence of kaolinite as normal clay in

red tropical soils and major mineral as reported by Adewole et al., (2020), Ajayi and Agagu, (1981). If a soil

exhibits high values of clay colloidal activity, it may require further investigation by XRD (clay mineralogical

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analysis) as recommended by Utsalo et al. (2023) to ascertain if sensitive and problematic clays are involved or

if it is just because of soil geologic history and cohesion (Skempton, 1984; Skempton, 1953) which may not pose

much danger. The soils studied also do not have clay of too low colloidal activity (less than 0.75). This suggests

that taking satisfactory undisturbed samples in deep clay beds may not be too difficult.

CONCLUSION

The soils studied are made up principally of clays with moderate values of clay colloidal activity, which suggests

that they will likely exhibit normal clay behaviour.

Their plasticity and Compressibility figures are intermediate. This indicates that the soils are unexpected to react

adversely to moisture or dry conditions. This alleviates the possibility of excessive expansion, contraction or

fluidity connected with problem clays.

The results indicated that the soils might not constitute significant dangers when used for civil

engineering/construction works, on the ground that they are used within competence and best practices. Soil

stabilization using chemical additives such as lime; with

dosages ranging from 2% to 8% (Etim et al., 2021) may

be considered in circumstances requiring additional soil strength for the intermediate to high plasticity clays in

the studied areas.

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