INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
Chemical Classification of Corn Sheath Ash, Cassava Pulp Ash, and  
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag as Supplementary Cementitious  
Materials Using X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis  
Adeniji A.A. and Ayegbusi O.A.  
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2025.1412000130  
Received: 29 December 2025; Accepted: 03 January 2026; Published: 16 January 2026  
ABSTRACT  
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) enhances constructability through high flowability and self-consolidation;  
however, its elevated cement demand increases cost and environmental impact. This study evaluates Corn Sheath  
Ash (CSA), Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA), and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) as partial cement  
replacements in SCC. Cement was replaced at levels of 0–20% by mass at a constant water-to-binder ratio of  
0.50, following EFNARC guidelines. Workability was assessed using slump flow tests, while compressive  
strength was measured at 7, 14, and 28 days. Increasing replacement levels resulted in reduced flowability for  
all materials. At 20% replacement, slump flow decreased from 755 mm for the control mix to 662 mm and 645  
mm for CSA- and CPA-based SCC, respectively, whereas GBFS mixes maintained higher flowability (≈684  
mm). Compressive strength declined with increasing CSA and CPA content, with 28-day strengths reducing to  
25.5 MPa and 21.3 MPa, respectively, due to cement dilution and limited reactivity. In contrast, GBFS-  
containing SCC achieved a 28-day compressive strength of approximately 29.1 MPa at 20% replacement,  
attributed to its latent hydraulic behavior. CSA and CPA are suitable up to 10–15% replacement, while GBFS  
can be used up to 20% to produce sustainable SCC.  
Keywords: Self-compacting concrete, Agricultural waste ash, Workability, Compressive strength  
INTRODUCTION  
The growing demand for sustainable construction materials has intensified efforts to reduce the environmental  
impact associated with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) production. Cement manufacture is responsible for  
approximately 7–8% of global carbon dioxide emissions, largely due to the calcination of limestone and high  
energy consumption during clinker production (Andrew, 2019; Scrivener et al., 2018). As a result, the partial  
replacement of cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) has become a widely accepted  
strategy for lowering emissions while maintaining acceptable concrete performance.  
Self-compacting concrete (SCC), characterized by its ability to flow under its own weight without segregation  
or external vibration, typically requires a high powder content to achieve adequate rheological stability  
(Okamura & Ouchi, 2003; EFNARC, 2005). This increased powder demand often leads to higher cement usage,  
further amplifying environmental concerns. Consequently, incorporating SCMs into SCC not only enhances  
sustainability but also contributes to improved particle packing, viscosity control, and long-term performance  
when properly selected (Khayat, 2020).  
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) is one of the most extensively studied SCMs and has been  
successfully used in both conventional and self-compacting concrete. Its latent hydraulic properties allow it to  
react with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration, leading to the formation of additional calcium  
silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel and refined pore structure at later ages (Shi et al., 2015; Thomas, 2018). Numerous  
studies have confirmed that the effectiveness of GBFS is strongly linked to its chemical composition, particularly  
its silica, alumina, and calcium oxide contents (Scrivener et al., 2018).  
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In parallel with industrial by-products, increasing attention has been directed toward agricultural waste ashes as  
alternative SCMs due to their abundance, low cost, and potential pozzolanic characteristics. Corn Sheath Ash  
(CSA) and Cassava PeelAsh (CPA) are agro-waste materials generated in large quantities in maize- and cassava-  
producing regions, especially in developing economies. When subjected to controlled calcination, such biomass  
ashes may contain reactive oxides such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃, which are essential for pozzolanic activity in  
cementitious systems (Mehta, 2001; Adesanya & Raheem, 2010).  
However, unlike GBFS, the chemical composition of agricultural ashes is highly variable and depends on factors  
such as plant species, soil conditions, harvesting method, and burning temperature (Scrivener et al., 2018). This  
variability introduces uncertainty regarding their suitability as SCMs and limits their broader adoption in  
concrete production. Several researchers have emphasized that chemical characterization is a critical first step  
in evaluating any new SCM, as oxide composition directly governs reactivity, strength development, and  
durability performance (ASTM C618; Neville, 2011).  
Despite the growing interest in CSA and CPA, there remains limited and inconsistent data on their chemical  
properties, particularly when compared directly with well-established SCMs such as GBFS. Most existing  
studies focus on mechanical or durability performance without first establishing whether the ashes satisfy  
fundamental chemical requirements for pozzolanic or cementitious behavior. This gap highlights a clear research  
problem:  
the lack of comprehensive and comparable chemical characterization of GBFS, Corn Sheath Ash (CSA), and  
Cassava Peel Ash (CPA) to support their use as supplementary cementitious materials. To address this gap, the  
present study focuses on determining the chemical properties of GBFS, CSA, and CPAusing X-ray fluorescence  
(XRF) analysis. XRF is a widely accepted and reliable technique for quantifying the oxide composition of  
cementitious materials and assessing their conformity with established standards for SCMs (Scrivener et al.,  
2018; ASTM C618). By comparing the major oxide contents of CSA and CPA with those of GBFS, this study  
provides a scientific basis for evaluating their potential reactivity and suitability for use in sustainable self-  
compacting concrete. The results of this investigation are intended to serve as a foundational step toward the  
effective utilization of agricultural waste ashes in concrete, enabling informed mix design decisions and  
supporting future studies on fresh, mechanical, and durability performance. Ultimately, this approach contributes  
to resource efficiency, waste valorization, and reduced environmental impact in cement-based construction.  
Therefore, this study aims to determine the chemical composition of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag  
(GBFS), Corn Sheath Ash (CSA), and Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA) using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, in  
order to assess their suitability as supplementary cementitious materials for sustainable concrete applications.  
MATERIALS AND METHODS  
Materials  
The materials investigated in this study consist of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS), Corn Sheath  
Ash (CSA), and Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA), all considered for use as supplementary cementitious materials in  
sustainable concrete applications. GBFS was obtained from a steel production facility, where molten blast  
furnace slag was rapidly quenched and subsequently ground to a fine powder. GBFS is widely recognized for its  
latent hydraulic properties and its ability to improve long-term strength and durability in cement-based materials  
(Shi et al., 2015; Thomas, 2018).  
Corn sheath, an agricultural residue generated during maize harvesting, was collected from a local agricultural  
processing area. The sheath was air-dried to remove moisture, then calcined in a muffle furnace at controlled  
temperatures between 600–700 °C to produce Corn Sheath Ash (CSA). This temperature range was selected  
based on previous studies indicating effective removal of organic matter while preserving reactive silica content  
(Adesanya & Raheem, 2009; Cordeiro et al., 2019). Cassava pulp, a by-product of cassava processing industries,  
was similarly collected, sun-dried, and calcined at temperatures between 600–700 °C to obtain Cassava Pulp  
Ash (CPA). The ash was then cooled and sieved through a 75 µm sieve to ensure uniform fineness suitable for  
chemical analysis. Agricultural ashes produced under controlled calcination conditions have been reported to  
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contain appreciable amounts of silica and alumina, which are essential for pozzolanic activity (Aprianti et al.,  
2015; Villar-Cociña et al., 2020).  
Sample Preparation  
All materials (GBFS, CSA, and CPA) were oven-dried at 105 ± 5 °C to remove residual moisture prior to  
analysis. The dried samples were finely ground using a laboratory ball mill to achieve homogeneous particle size  
distribution. Each sample was then passed through a 75 µm sieve to minimize the influence of particle size on  
XRF results. For XRF analysis, representative samples were prepared in accordance with standard laboratory  
procedures. The powdered samples were thoroughly mixed to ensure homogeneity. Pelletized samples were  
prepared by compacting the powders under high pressure using a hydraulic press, with a suitable binder added  
where necessary to improve pellet stability. This preparation method minimizes matrix effects and improves  
analytical accuracy (Jenkins et al., 2014).  
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis  
The chemical composition of GBFS, CSA, and CPA was determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF)  
spectroscopy, a non-destructive analytical technique widely used for elemental and oxide analysis of  
cementitious materials. The XRF analysis was conducted using a wavelength-dispersive XRF spectrometer  
calibrated with certified reference materials.  
The analysis quantified the major oxide constituents, including SiO₂, Al₂O₃, CaO, Fe₂O₃, MgO, SO₃, Na₂O, and  
K₂O, as well as loss on ignition (LOI), in accordance with procedures commonly adopted for cement and  
supplementary cementitious materials (ASTM C114; Taylor, 1997). The oxide compositions obtained were  
expressed as percentages by mass.  
The chemical compositions obtained from XRF analysis were evaluated to assess the suitability of GBFS, CSA,  
and CPA as supplementary cementitious materials. Particular attention was given to the combined content of  
SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + Fe₂O₃, which is a key indicator of pozzolanic potential, as specified in ASTM C618.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS  
Oxide and elemental XRF results of CPA  
The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) results presented in Figures 1 and 2 provide a comprehensive understanding of  
the chemical nature of Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA) through both oxide and elemental analyses. The oxide  
composition reveals that CPA is dominated by calcium oxide (CaO, 33.85 wt.%) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂, 25.61  
wt.%), indicating a material with mixed cementitious and pozzolanic characteristics. The high CaO content  
suggests that CPA possesses self-cementing or hydraulic tendencies, enabling it to participate directly in  
hydration reactions and potentially contribute to early-age strength development when used as a partial cement  
replacement. Similar behavior has been reported for calcium-rich agricultural ashes, where free lime plays a  
significant role in hydration and strength formation (Scrivener et al., 2018; Mehta & Monteiro, 2014).  
Silicon dioxide constitutes the second-largest oxide fraction, highlighting the presence of reactive silica capable  
of participating in pozzolanic reactions. In cementitious systems, reactive SiO₂ combines with calcium hydroxide  
released during cement hydration to form additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H), leading to matrix  
densification and improved long-term performance (Taylor, 1997; Thomas, 2018). However, the combined  
content of SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and Fe₂O₃ in CPA is approximately 37.7 wt.%, which falls below the 70% minimum  
requirement specified by ASTM C618 for Class F or Class N pozzolans. This indicates that CPAdoes not qualify  
as a conventional pozzolan on its own but is better described as a hybrid cementitious material with both filler  
and supplementary reactivity.  
The presence of relatively high levels of P₂O₅ (8.75 wt.%) and SO₃ (7.76 wt.%) is characteristic of biomass-  
derived ashes. Phosphorus compounds are known to influence cement hydration by retarding early reactions  
through interference with clinker phases, particularly at elevated concentrations (Ganesan et al., 2008). Similarly,  
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sulfur compounds may affect setting behavior and sulfate balance, requiring careful control to prevent potential  
expansion or durability issues (Neville, 2011). Moderate alkali content, reflected by K₂O at 7.69 wt.%, further  
suggests that CPA may increase pore solution alkalinity. While this can enhance early dissolution of silica, it  
may also elevate the risk of alkali–silica reaction (ASR) in mixes containing reactive aggregates, emphasizing  
the importance of compatibility assessment (Thomas et al., 2022).  
The elemental XRF analysis shown in Figure 2 supports and reinforces the oxide-based findings. Calcium is the  
most abundant element in CPA (24.20%), followed by silicon (11.97%) and potassium (6.39%), confirming the  
calcium-rich nature of the ash. The dominance of calcium further supports the potential of CPA to contribute  
directly to hydration processes rather than acting solely as an inert filler. Calcium availability is essential for the  
formation of C–S–H, the primary strength-giving phase in cement-based materials (Scrivener et al., 2018;  
Neville, 2011). The significant presence of silicon confirms the availability of reactive silica for secondary  
pozzolanic reactions, although at lower levels than those found in conventional pozzolans such as fly ash or  
silica fume (Taylor, 1997; Thomas, 2018).  
Potassium-rich composition reflects the organic origin of CPA and is typical of agricultural residues. While  
alkalis can promote early reaction kinetics, excessive alkali content may compromise durability if not carefully  
managed. Phosphorus (3.82%) and sulfur (3.11%) contents observed in the elemental analysis align well with  
the oxide data and further highlight the need for controlled replacement levels to avoid adverse effects on  
hydration and setting (Ganesan et al., 2008; Mehta & Monteiro, 2014). Iron (5.19%) and other minor elements  
such as manganese, titanium, zinc, and copper occur in moderate to trace quantities and are not expected to  
negatively influence hydration or durability at the measured concentrations. These elements largely reflect the  
natural mineral content of the biomass and possible soil contamination during cultivation and processing  
(Scrivener et al., 2018).  
Overall, the combined oxide and elemental XRF analyses confirm that CPA is best classified as a calcium-rich  
agro-waste ash with supplementary cementitious potential. Although it does not meet the strict chemical  
requirements of conventional pozzolans, its composition supports its use as a partial cement replacement or  
blending material. In particular, combining CPA with highly reactive supplementary cementitious materials such  
as Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) offers a practical strategy to balance early reactivity, long-term  
strength development, durability, and sustainability in cementitious systems  
Figure 1: Major oxide composition of CPA  
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Figure 2: Elemental composition of CPA  
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Oxide and elemental XRF interpretation of CSA  
Figures 3 and 4 present the oxide and elemental compositions of Corn Sheath Ash (CSA) obtained from X-ray  
fluorescence (XRF) analysis, providing complementary insight into its chemical characteristics and potential as  
a supplementary cementitious material. The oxide composition shows that CSA is dominated by silicon dioxide  
(SiO₂ ≈ 37.9 wt.%), followed by calcium oxide (CaO ≈ 18.9 wt.%). The high silica content is a key indicator of  
pozzolanic potential, as reactive silica can combine with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to  
form additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H), thereby contributing to long-term strength development and  
durability enhancement (Mehta & Monteiro, 2014; Scrivener et al., 2018).  
The presence of a moderate CaO content suggests that CSA may also exhibit limited self-cementing behavior,  
particularly at early ages, while simultaneously supporting pozzolanic reactions when blended with Portland  
cement. Such combined siliceous–calcareous characteristics are typical of many agricultural biomass ashes and  
enable CSA to act both as a reactive filler and a supplementary cementitious component (Taylor, 1997; Siddique  
& Khan, 2011). The combined SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + Fe₂O₃ content exceeds 50 wt.%, which is commonly regarded as  
a threshold indicating pozzolanic suitability for non-conventional ashes, even though it falls below the stricter  
ASTM C618 requirement of 70% for Class F or Class N pozzolans.  
Relatively high alkali content is reflected by potassium oxide (K₂O ≈ 11.8 wt.%), which is characteristic of ashes  
derived from agricultural residues. Alkalis can accelerate early dissolution of silica and influence setting  
behavior; however, excessive alkali levels may increase the risk of alkali–silica reaction (ASR) in the presence  
of reactive aggregates, necessitating careful control of CSA replacement levels (Neville, 2011; Thomas et al.,  
2018). Iron oxide (Fe₂O₃ ≈ 7.9 wt.%) contributes marginally to cementitious reactions, while phosphorus  
pentoxide (P₂O₅ ≈ 7.1 wt.%) is notable due to its potential to retard hydration at elevated concentrations by  
interfering with clinker phase reactions (Lea, 1970; Juenger et al., 2019). Other oxides such as Al₂O₃, SO₃, and  
MgO occur in moderate amounts and may influence secondary hydration products and setting behavior when  
present in controlled quantities (Taylor, 1997). The elemental XRF analysis further supports these observations.  
Silicon is the most abundant element in CSA (17.71%), confirming the dominance of silica-bearing phases and  
reinforcing its pozzolanic character. Calcium (13.51%) is also present in significant quantity, indicating the  
availability of calcareous compounds that may contribute to early-age reactions and enhance the overall  
reactivity of the ash when blended with cement. The coexistence of silicon and calcium suggests that CSA  
functions as a siliceous–calcareous biomass ash rather than a purely inert filler (Adesanya & Raheem, 2009;  
Khankhaje et al., 2020). Potassium (9.76%) and iron (5.51%) are present in relatively high proportions, reflecting  
the agricultural origin of the ash and nutrient uptake during plant growth. While iron is largely inert in hydration  
chemistry, elevated potassium levels reinforce the need for durability assessment related to ASR. Phosphorus  
(3.12%) and chlorine (3.29%) appear as notable secondary elements; phosphorus may retard hydration at high  
concentrations, while chlorine content suggests that CSA should be carefully processed and proportioned,  
particularly in applications involving reinforced concrete (Lothenbach et al., 2011). Minor and trace elements  
such as magnesium, aluminum, titanium, manganese, zinc, and others occur in low concentrations and are  
unlikely to adversely affect cement hydration or durability. Overall, the combined oxide and elemental XRF  
analyses classify Corn Sheath Ash as a biomass-derived supplementary cementitious material with moderate  
pozzolanic potential. Its chemical composition supports its use as a partial cement replacement at controlled  
levels, where it can contribute to sustainability objectives by reducing cement consumption while maintaining  
acceptable chemical compatibility with cementitious systems. The effectiveness of CSA in practical applications  
will depend largely on replacement percentage, fineness, and interaction with Portland cement hydration  
products, consistent with findings reported for similar agricultural ashes (Scrivener et al., 2018; Thomas, 2018).  
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Figure 3: Major oxide composition of CSA  
XRF Chemical Composition Analysis of GBFS  
Figure 4: Elemental composition of CSA  
Figure 5 presents the XRF-derived oxide composition of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) expressed in  
weight percentage. The dominant oxides are Fe₂O₃ (24.47 wt.%), SiO₂ (23.04 wt.%), Al₂O₃ (14.64 wt.%), TiO₂  
(13.32 wt.%), and CaO (12.20 wt.%), indicating a chemically complex alumino-silicate material with significant  
calcium content.  
The relatively high SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ contents are critical for the pozzolanic and latent hydraulic behavior of GBFS.  
These oxides contribute to the formation of secondary calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) and calcium  
aluminosilicate hydrate (C–A–S–H) phases during hydration, which enhance long-term strength and durability  
in cementitious systems (Shi et al., 2015; Scrivener et al., 2018). The presence of CaO, although lower than in  
Portland cement, provides the alkalinity required to activate slag hydration, especially in blended cement systems  
(Thomas, 2018).  
The substantial Fe₂O₃ content suggests that the slag originated from iron-rich blast furnace feedstock. While iron  
oxides contribute minimally to strength development, they influence slag density, color, and in some cases  
hydration kinetics (Neville, 2011). The moderate MnO (6.15 wt.%) content is typical of blast furnace slags and  
has been reported to participate in solid-solution phases within the slag glass structure, indirectly affecting  
reactivity (Shi et al., 2015).  
Minor oxides such as V₂O₅, SO₃, Cl, K₂O, ZnO, and BaO occur in trace amounts. These oxides generally do not  
adversely affect concrete performance when present at low concentrations; however, SO₃ contributes to early-  
age reactions, while chloride content must remain controlled to avoid reinforcement corrosion (Neville, 2011;  
Thomas, 2018). The low alkali content (K₂O < 0.3 wt.%) is beneficial, as it reduces the risk of alkali–silica  
reaction in concrete.  
Overall, the oxide composition confirms that the GBFS used in this study meets the chemical requirements for  
use as a supplementary cementitious material. Its high glass-forming oxides (SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + CaO) support its  
suitability for sustainable concrete production, where it can partially replace cement while maintaining adequate  
mechanical and durability performance (Scrivener et al., 2018; Thomas, 2018).  
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Figure 5: Oxide composition of GBFS  
Comparative analysis of oxide composition of CSA, CPA, and GBFS  
The comparative oxide composition of Corn Sheath Ash (CSA), Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA), and Granulated Blast  
Furnace Slag (GBFS) is illustrated using both a scatter plot in figure 6 and a ternary oxide diagram in figure 7  
based on the relative proportions of SiO₂, CaO, and Al₂O₃. These three oxides are the most influential in  
governing the pozzolanic, hydraulic, and cementitious behaviour of supplementary cementitious materials. The  
scatter plot highlights clear compositional differences among the materials, while the ternary diagram provides  
a concise visualization of their chemical positioning and potential reactivity.  
CSA exhibits the highest proportion of silicon dioxide among the three materials, confirming its silica-rich  
nature. This high SiO₂ content is indicative of strong pozzolanic potential, as reactive silica can react with  
calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to form additional calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel.  
Such reactions are commonly associated with improved long-term strength development and reduced  
permeability in cementitious systems incorporating agricultural biomass ashes (Chindaprasirt et al., 2020;  
Adesina & Das, 2021). In the ternary oxide diagram, CSA occupies an intermediate but silica-leaning position,  
reflecting a pozzolanic-dominant yet calcium-assisted behavior. The moderate CaO content supports limited  
early hydration, while the relatively low Al₂O₃ content restricts extensive aluminate-based hydration products,  
explaining its balanced but intermediate chemical reactivity.  
CPA displays a moderate silica content but the highest calcium oxide proportion among the three materials. This  
elevated CaO content suggests partial self-cementing or hydraulic characteristics, enabling CPA to participate  
directly in hydration reactions rather than acting solely as a pozzolan. In the scatter plot, CPA’s CaO dominance  
distinguishes it from CSA and GBFS, while its location near the SiO₂ apex in the ternary diagram reflects the  
combined influence of silica and calcium. This hybrid chemical nature explains the ability of CPA to contribute  
to early-age reactions, although excessive calcium may increase water demand and sensitivity to volumetric  
instability if not carefully controlled (Mehta & Monteiro, 2019; Scrivener et al., 2021). The relatively low Al₂O₃  
content further limits aluminate reactivity, placing CPA chemically between purely pozzolanic and hydraulic  
materials.  
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GBFS is clearly differentiated by its higher aluminum oxide content and more balanced SiO₂–CaO–Al₂O₃  
composition. Although its silica content is lower than that of CSA, it remains sufficient to support latent  
hydraulic reactions. The elevated Al₂O₃ content promotes the formation of calcium–alumino–silicate–hydrate  
(C–A–S–H) and hydrotalcite-like phases, which are widely associated with enhanced sulfate resistance, pore  
refinement, and long-term durability. In the ternary diagram, GBFS shifts toward the CaO–Al₂O₃ region,  
confirming its latent hydraulic character and distinguishing it from the more silica-dominated agricultural ashes.  
This chemical balance is a key factor behind the widespread use of GBFS in blended cements and alkali-activated  
systems (Bernal et al., 2020; Provis & van Deventer, 2021). Overall, the combined scatter and ternary oxide  
analyses clearly demonstrate the complementary chemical characteristics of CSA, CPA, and GBFS. CSA is  
predominantly pozzolanic due to its high silica content, CPA exhibits calcium-rich hybrid behavior with partial  
hydraulic potential, and GBFS represents a chemically balanced latent hydraulic material. The ternary oxide  
diagram provides a clear chemical framework for classifying these materials into pozzolanic, hydraulic, and  
hybrid zones, thereby offering a robust basis for understanding their differing reactivity and compatibility as  
supplementary cementitious materials. This comparative chemical characterization also highlights the potential  
advantages of binary or ternary blending strategies, where the strengths of each material can be combined to  
achieve balanced reactivity and improved sustainability in cementitious systems.  
Figure 6: Major oxide in CSA, CPA and GBFS  
Figure 7: Ternary Oxide Diagram  
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
The reactivity of Corn Sheath Ash (CSA) and Cassava Pulp Ash (CPA) in cementitious systems is governed  
primarily by the structural state of their silica and their chemical composition. Silica present in agricultural waste  
ashes is largely biogenic and occurs predominantly in an amorphous form, which lacks long-range crystalline  
order. This amorphous nature enhances silica solubility in the highly alkaline pore solution of cement paste,  
enabling pozzolanic reactions with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to form secondary  
calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H). However, the extent of amorphization is highly dependent on calcination  
conditions, and partial crystallization during uncontrolled burning can significantly reduce reactivity. This  
explains the limited strength contribution of CSA and CPA relative to GBFS, particularly at early curing ages.  
Despite the presence of amorphous silica, CSA- and CPA-modified SCC exhibited reduced early-age  
compressive strength, consistent with their elevated phosphorus content. Phosphate ions react readily with  
calcium ions to form insoluble calcium phosphate compounds, which precipitate on cement grain surfaces and  
inhibit the dissolution of tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate phases. This mechanism delays the  
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formation of early hydration products, resulting in prolonged setting times and suppressed strength development  
at 7 and 14 days, as observed experimentally.  
CSA and CPA also contain appreciable amounts of alkali oxides (Na₂O and K₂O), which increase pore solution  
alkalinity and may enhance amorphous silica dissolution. However, in the presence of high phosphorus levels,  
the accelerating influence of alkalis is outweighed by phosphate-induced retardation, leading to an overall delay  
in hydration and reduced compressive strength at higher replacement levels.  
The combined effects of limited silica reactivity, phosphate-induced retardation, and cement dilution explain the  
pronounced strength reductions observed beyond 10–15% replacement. From a durability perspective, slower  
hydration and reduced early matrix densification may also influence long-term transport properties, highlighting  
the need for controlled replacement levels and optimized processing of CSA and CPA in SCC.  
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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIV, Issue XII, December 2025  
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