INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue I, January 2026  
Passive Cooling Strategies in Contemporary African Architecture: A  
Systematic Review of Thermal Comfort Outcomes  
Eyiah-Botwe, E.  
Department of Construction Technology and Quantity Surveying, Kumasi Technical University, Ghana.  
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150100045  
Received: 15 January 2026; Accepted: 20 January 2026; Published: 29 January 2026  
ABSTRACT  
Africa faces increasing thermal stress from rising temperatures, rapid urbanisation, and energy poverty, making  
it hard to provide indoor environments that are both comfortable and sustainable. Among the range of cooling  
solutions, passive cooling strategies using natural ventilation, shading devices, and materials with high thermal  
inertia are considered urban-scale interventions, all low-energy approaches that align with bioclimatic design  
principles and allow for the incorporation of local knowledge. In this systematic review, the researcher seeks to  
bring together previous work on the thermal comfort outcomes of passive cooling strategies in contemporary  
architecture and to identify performance patterns that depend on context. Following the PRISMA 2020  
guidelines, we selected ten post-2018 studies from databases including Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect,  
and African Journals Online, along with grey literature and regional climate reports. The data was extracted  
according to strategy type, building typology, climate zone, thermal metrics (PMV, PPD, adaptive hours), and  
energy impact. The findings show that the application of multiple strategies together always produced better  
results than that of the single-strategy approaches, with a reduction in the indoor temperatures of 3-5°C and the  
cooling energy demand of 20-60%. The effectiveness highly depended on the climate, with cross-ventilation and  
shading being the best in hot-humid areas and high thermal mass being the most important in arid regions. The  
application of historical and vernacular designs increased the adaptability, especially when combined with  
modern innovations such as reflective coatings and PV shading. The analysis reveals a persistent gap between  
the designer's expectations and the users' comfort, thus highlighting an urgent requirement for standard  
evaluation and climate-based guidelines. Generally, the application of climate-responsive PCS can cause thermal  
comfort to be better, energy consumption to be less, and African urban resilience to be more durable.  
Keywords: Adaptive comfort; passive cooling strategies; thermal comfort; vernacular architecture  
INTRODUCTION  
Africa is among the continents most susceptible to the effects of climate change, and it is predicted that the  
average temperatures in the continent will be rising at a rate even higher than the global average and will go  
through more drastic weather conditions (Lucatell & Sánchez, 2022). The combination of these climate variables  
and the urban population increase of over 3.5% annually has led to a growing demand for cooling in West, East,  
and Southern African metropolises (UN-Habitat, 2024). At the same time, lack of electricity still exists as a  
barrier for poor families, who cannot afford the cost of mechanical cooling that is both reliable and inexpensive.  
All of this has led to a situation where the comfort levels required by people are clashing with the economic and  
infrastructural conditions of modern-day African cities.  
Active cooling systems that are often conventional have the power to interrupt the natural cooling processes in  
the environment, while they are effective in temperate and high-income contexts. The electricity consumption  
in air-conditioning, for one, is the major source of peak loads and emissions of greenhouse gases. Moreover, it  
leaves the users affected by blackouts (Fajilla et al., 2020). In light of the above, passive cooling strategies (PCS)  
have made a comeback as critical design solutions. The techniques of PCS include natural and stack ventilation,  
optimised building orientation, thermal mass, solar shading, evaporative cooling, and reflective or vegetated  
envelopes. These methods are based on bioclimatic design principles that harmonise the shape and the materials  
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used in the building with the local climate (Kaihoul et al., 2021; Raven et al., 2018). It is worth noting that Africa  
is endowed with a twofold opportunity: the rediscovery of cooling practices of the past that are still present in  
the form of vernacular architecture, as well as the use of modern materials and simulation-based design (Santos  
et al., 2023).  
Although more and more researchers are getting interested in the issue, the situation in Africa's contemporary  
architecture regarding passive cooling is still marked by a lack of evidence. Various empirical case studies are  
documenting individual strategies in residential, educational, and office buildings, but only in very few cases  
have the thermal comfort outcomes been quantified and then synthesised. Therefore, the architects and the  
decision-makers are deprived of a united proof base for evaluating the performance of different strategies in  
terms of effectiveness, conditions, and even their total extent.  
There are still three major areas of ignorance. One of the areas is that the inconsistency in the thermal comfort  
metrics has led to a situation where studies can hardly be compared. The outcomes reported differ very much  
from one another, and the measures used in the studies are PMV and PPD to adaptive comfort hours and indoor  
operative temperatures, creating methodological discontinuities (Bueno et al., 2021). Second, the studies  
conducted are quite often very limited to the specific region, thus the thermal comfort metrics are not properly  
defined. Africa has very different climate zones, building types, and occupancy patterns that are highly  
influenced by the cultural aspects, etc, but these are often left out when studying the application of passive  
cooling systems. Lastly, maintenance issues, trade-offs in design, and the behaviour of the occupants are not  
usually compiled, though they are very important to the actual performance of the system (Roetzel, 2019). Thus,  
there is no systematic review mapping process that classifies passive cooling as effective or ineffective based on  
standard thermal comfort benchmarks across Africa's diverse climatic regions.  
This study aims to compile the results from different studies performed on the impact of passive cooling systems  
on thermal comfort in today's African buildings and to pinpoint the performance trends that depend on the  
context. The review's main research question is: What is the impact of passive cooling systems in modern African  
architecture on the thermal comfort outcomes that can be measured and are different according to the climate  
and the socio-economic situations?  
From a theoretical standpoint, the review represents a leap forward in the bioclimatic design education by putting  
together the scattered performance data of the passive cooling strategies into a coherent taxonomy along with  
their thermal comfort outcomes and also dealing with the definitional and methodological problems (Hernández  
et al., 2023). On the ground, the results give a hand to architects and developers in picking the strategies that  
have been tested for solid performance and that are capable of reducing the cooling energy demand that takes up  
more than 40% of the global electricity used by buildings (Marzouk, 2025; IEA, 2023). The synthesis also brings  
forth data that can be utilised to shape climate-responsive building codes, including the newly developed African  
ones like Ghana's GS 1807:2022, all the while contributing to SDG 7, which is about Access to Energy for All.  
From the point of view of climate justice, the enhancement of passive thermal comfort has an impact on health,  
which can be considered a co-benefit; these include lower heat stress and heat-related morbidity in the  
populations that are poor and climate-vulnerable and where access to mechanical cooling is not possible  
(Hernández, 2022).  
METHODS AND MATERIAL  
In this study, the researcher employed a systematic review for their approach, which enabled them to discover,  
choose, assess, and finally integrate the pieces of empirical evidence concerning the use of soft project  
management practices in the African infrastructure sector. The review was performed through meticulous steps  
and was in full conformity with the guidelines set out by the PRISMA statement for systematic reviews and  
meta-analysis (2020), which recommends a systematic approach that not only increases the transparency,  
reproducibility, and methodological rigor of the whole process but also diminishes the chances of biases related  
to selection and reporting (Page et al., 2021). The patterns of the systematic review handbooks served as a basis  
for the consistent application of the search methods, assessment of eligibility, and synthesis of evidence  
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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue I, January 2026  
throughout the varied study designs related to project management research (Aromataris et al., 2022; Chandler  
et al., 2019). Thus, this part deals with the systematic review design (Section 2.1), eligibility criteria (Section  
2.2), sources of information and search strategy (Section 2.3), process of study selection (Section 2.4), quality  
appraisal and evaluation of risk of bias (Section 2.5), data extraction methods (Section 2.6), data synthesis  
technique (Section 2.7), and reporting standards adhered to in the review (Section 2.8).  
Systematic review design  
A systematic review design was used to combine pieces of evidence that were fragmented and conceptually  
diffuse about soft project management practices in African infrastructure projects. The soft practices of  
leadership, communication, trust-building, and stakeholder engagement are usually ambiguously defined, which,  
along with their varied application in different studies, makes it hard to merge the narratives. In such cases,  
systematic reviews emerge as the most suitable option since they permit total evidence coverage, structured  
synthesis, and bias reduction through protocol-driven procedures (Denyer & Tranfield, 2009; Snyder, 2019).  
This approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the chosen methodology but also boosts the reliability of  
the results obtained from different project management research. The review was done according to the PRISMA  
2020 guidance, which means Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (Page et al.,  
2021). A protocol for the review was made and registered in PROSPERO before the actual review, and the  
registration ID can be obtained upon request to make sure that there is no selection bias and no methodological  
changes done post hoc, following the best-practice guidance for systematic reviews (Aromataris et al., 2022).  
The review was executed using a five-step workflow which included: firstly, identifying records by means of  
structured database searches; secondly, screening titles and abstracts according to predetermined PICOS  
(population, intervention, context, outcomes, and study design) criteria; thirdly, full-text review against formal  
standards for eligibility assessment; fourthly, literature that complied with the full set of criteria was included;  
and fifthly, discussion of soft practice definitions, implementation approaches, and reported outcomes through  
thematic analysis was the method of synthesis. For the independent screening Rayyan software was used, while  
for the qualitative synthesis, NVivo was the one used. In order to cope with the conceptual ambiguity that is  
always associated with soft practices, an iterative refinement strategy was used. Initial broad search terms were  
supplemented with backward and forward citation chaining to include studies where soft practices were talked  
about indirectly rather than labelled directly, thus increasing conceptual coverage and analytical rigour (Denyer  
& Tranfield, 2009).  
Eligibility criteria  
The review's exclusion and inclusion criteria were established according to the PICOS framework, which  
included Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study design, thereby allowing systematic,  
transparent, and replicable study selection (Nawijn et al., 2019).  
Table 1: Eligibility Criteria Based on PICOS  
Element  
Inclusion Criteria  
Exclusion Criteria  
Population (P)  
Contemporary African buildings (post-2018); All  
building typologies (residential, institutional,  
commercial); All African climate zones (Köppen-  
Geiger classified)  
Non-African case studies;  
Pre-2018 constructions;  
Buildings without  
occupancy/thermal  
measurements.  
Intervention (I)  
Explicit or implicit passive cooling strategies:  
Natural ventilation; Thermal mass utilisation;  
Evaporative cooling; Solar shading; Hybrid  
vernacular-contemporary systems  
Active cooling systems  
(HVAC, mechanical  
ventilation); Purely  
theoretical/simulation studies  
without empirical data  
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Comparison (C)  
Outcomes (O)  
Before-and-after retrofit comparisons; Passive vs.  
conventional building performance; Cross-strategy  
efficacy comparisons within the same climate zone.  
No comparative element  
Quantifiable thermal comfort metrics: PMV/PPD  
indices; Adaptive comfort hours;  
Qualitative assessments only;  
No thermal performance data  
Temperature/humidity differentials; Occupant  
satisfaction surveys (validated tools).  
Study Design (S) Empirical field studies; Controlled monitoring  
(≥72hrs continuous data); Peer-reviewed publications  
(2018-2025); English-language reports with full  
methodology  
Editorials, opinion pieces,  
non-peer-reviewed reports,  
dissertations, and non-English  
publications.  
To add the specific richness related to Africa's context, certain grey literature from the World Bank, African  
Development Bank, and Asian Development Bank, being the main multilateral development institutions, was  
included, where there was both methodological transparency and empirical grounding. The choice signifies the  
prevalence of donor-funded infrastructure delivery in Africa and the practical insights that are contained in such  
reports. The review was restricted to English-language sources due to limitations of resources, and was aware of  
the possible bias caused by language. The period of 2018–2025 was chosen to reflect the growing recognition  
of passive cooling systems on thermal comfort in today's African buildings and to pinpoint the performance  
trends that depend on the context, as per project studies literature (Ika, 2012). Due to the conceptual ambiguity  
surrounding soft practices, the eligibility decisions went for operational clarity instead of terminology. The  
ambiguities were sorted out through dual-reviewer validation during the full-text screening, thematic extraction  
of explicitly described behaviours (e.g., facilitated community dialogues, participatory decision-making), and  
the exclusion of studies where soft practices were only mentioned without clear implementation or linkage to  
project processes (Mashali et al., 2023).  
Studies retrieved from data base  
N = 100  
Studies not written in English (n = 19)  
Studies that were not full texts (n =  
20)  
Record after duplicates removed  
N = 80  
Record screened  
N = 41  
Articles excluded from the study  
based on titles and abstract (n =25)  
Full text assessed for eligibility  
N = 16  
Articles excluded based on inclusion  
and exclusion Criterion (n = 6)  
Articles included in the final review  
N = 10  
Figure 1: PRISMA reporting framework  
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Information Sources and Search Strategy  
A wide-ranging search was executed involving both multidisciplinary and architecture-exclusive databases to  
get rid of any possibility of bias and to get the coverage of the whole domain. The main bibliographic databases  
that were used were Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, African  
Journals Online (AJOL), and CumInCAD. These databases were selected due to their extensive indexing of  
research on architectural design, building science, and climate-responsive construction. In order to obtain  
technical guidance and applied research on thermal comfort, publications fromASHRAE, proceedings of Passive  
and Low Energy Architecture (PLEA) conferences, and the African Architecture Archive were reviewed. Grey  
literature was used to compensate for the lack of representation in the indexed journals of the region and  
consisted of UN-Habitat reports, African Union climate and housing policy documents, and selected university  
repositories that host peer-reviewed theses. The source selection process was guided by PRISMA-S to improve  
search transparency, sensitivity, and reproducibility, along with being contextually relevant to African  
architectural practice and climate research (Rethlefsen & Page, 2021).  
The search methodology was conducted in accordance with the three principal concepts: population,  
intervention, and outcomes. The population of interest was expressed in terms such as (“African architecture”  
OR “building design Africa” OR “vernacular architecture”) along with (“Africa” OR certain country names  
like “Ghana,” “Nigeria,” “Kenya,” and “Morocco”). Intervention terminology encompassed the whole range  
of passive cooling methods, namely, (“passive cooling” OR “natural ventilation” OR “thermal mass” OR  
“evaporative cooling” OR “shading devices” OR “bioclimatic design”). Outcome phrases were concentrated  
on results that could be measured, and they included (“thermal comfort” OR “adaptive comfort” OR “PMV”  
OR “PPD” OR “temperature reduction”). The search strategy utilised Boolean operators and truncation as well  
as additional climate descriptors, namely, (“hot-dry” OR “hot-humid” OR “tropical”) to refine the context more  
accurately.  
The creation of a sample query in Scopus included the following elements: TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“passive  
cooling” OR “natural ventilation”) AND (“thermal comfort” OR PMV) AND (“African architecture” OR  
“building design Africa”)). Iterative refinement was carried out through pilot searches, introducing alternative  
terms like “indigenous cooling techniques” and “climate-responsive design,” and the review of keywords in  
fundamental studies to improve retrieval sensitivity.  
The wide range of passive cooling terms used was not an obstacle at all; on the contrary, such local or colloquial  
names were accepted wherever they matched the cooling principles that were already recognised. Techniques  
such as windcatchers, courtyard cooling, thick earthen walls, and shading screens were clearly included. When  
the data were being extracted, the thermal comfort metrics were converted to a common measure in order to  
draw comparisons between the studies, in accordance with adaptive comfort theory and the recommendations  
from building science (Nicol & Humphreys, 2013).  
Study selection process  
The whole process of study selection adhered to the rules laid down by the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, which, in  
consequence, ensured transparency, consistency, and reproduction of results (Page et al., 2021). All the records  
that were retrieved were first managed by EndNote in terms of references and removal of duplicates, and then  
the remaining dataset of unique records was uploaded to Rayyan for the purpose of assisting with the blinded  
and independent screening conducted by multiple reviewers.  
Phase 1: Title and Abstract Screening.  
The first screening of the titles and abstracts was done independently by two reviewers. At this stage, a broad  
inclusion approach was adopted, by which any study reporting passive cooling strategies in the African  
architectural or building contexts was kept. Differences in opinion were settled through discussions, and the  
difficult cases were then sent to a third reviewer for ruling.  
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Phase 2: Full-Text Assessment.  
The articles in full text were evaluated on the basis of the already set PICOS criteria, paying special attention to  
the availability of empirical thermal comfort data like indoor temperature measurements, adaptive comfort  
indices, or PMV-based evaluations. At this point, the reasons for exclusion were clearly stated, including the  
most common ones, such as lack of empirical thermal performance data or non-African case locations.  
Phase 3: Final Inclusion. The studies that met all the criteria were additionally verified in order to take their  
relevance to current architectural practice, which was defined as building projects after 2018, and to check that  
empirical evidence was collected from the case studies in Africa, into account.  
Hybrid cooling systems that had both passive and active elements were only included if the passive strategies  
were the main cooling method. Studies that were predominantly of mechanical systems were excluded, while  
mixed systems were coded individually. A decision tree was used to determine the climate zones consistently  
across the cases. The inter-reviewer reliability was measured at the level of the abstract screening with the use  
of Cohen’s kappa coefficient, where the target threshold was set at above 0.80, implying strong agreement. A  
meticulous audit trail of screening decisions was kept at all times during the process.  
Quality appraisal and risk of bias assessment  
A quality evaluation that was structured was performed to determine the strength of the included studies  
regarding the methods and risks of bias, focusing mainly on the thermal comfort measurement methods' validity.  
The appraisal pointed out the need to follow the established adaptive comfort principles and measurement  
standards (De Dear & Brager, 2002) because of the sensitivity of comfort outcomes to contextual and behavioural  
factors. All studies that met the eligibility criteria were included in the review to keep the evidence breadth;  
however, their contributions to synthesis and interpretation were weighted according to the quality that was  
assessed to prevent over-dependence on the findings of weakly methodological studies.  
An appraisal framework was specifically created to suit the needs of passive cooling and thermal comfort  
research in the African architectural contexts. The four domains that were assessed were: (i) measurement rigor,  
which comprised instrument calibration, monitoring duration, and sample size adequacy; (ii) contextual  
documentation, covering climate zone classification, building typology, and occupancy patterns; (iii) design  
transparency, defined as clarity in describing passive strategy implementation and physical configurations; and  
(iv) bias control measures, such as accounting for seasonal variability or the use of control or reference buildings.  
A uniform scale of 0–3 was applied to judge each domain, indicating a high, medium, or low risk of bias. This  
allowed for the comparative weighting of the studies without changing the methodology. The quality assessment  
was done separately by two reviewers who used a standardised evaluation form. The differences in their  
judgments were settled through discussions, and those that could not be settled were passed on to a third reviewer.  
The result of the appraisal was presented through traffic-light plots that made it more understandable. There were  
plans for sensitivity analyses to check the reliability of synthesised findings by dividing the results according to  
quality grades, climate zones, and types of buildings, which was in line with the already laid Cochrane guidance  
on bias and sensitivity testing (Chandler et al., 2019).  
Data Extraction  
The whole process of data extraction aimed to systematically capture and harmonise the evidence regarding the  
thermal performance of passive cooling strategies applied in contemporary African architecture. They were  
aligning the whole internal consistency, reducing the transcription errors, and facilitating a transparent synthesis  
with the recommended standards for systematic reviews in building and environmental research (Christine  
Sotsek et al., 2019) by a structured and piloted extraction process. A standardised data extraction form was  
created in Microsoft Excel and, in the cases of qualitative coding, was supported by NVivo. The extraction form  
was built on the PICOS framework, which ensured a close link between extracted variables and review  
objectives. Pilot testing of dual independent extraction was done on 10% of the included studies. The  
discrepancies noticed during the piloting stage were used for iterative refinement of variable definitions, coding  
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rules, and category boundaries before the main extraction started. The data was extracted under three main  
categories. The details of the strategy covered the cooling type (like evaporative cooling, shading, natural  
ventilation), materials, and the design integration level, and the vernacular terminology was recorded word by  
word if it was used. The thermal metrics were PMV, PPD, adaptive comfort hours, and indoor–outdoor  
temperature differentials, and the units were standardised across studies to allow comparison. The contextual  
factors included climate zone classification according to the Köppen–Geiger system, building type, and  
occupancy patterns, and hybrid strategies were coded separately to maintain clear analysis. Data from all studies  
were subjected to dual independent extraction. Weekly meetings were held to reconcile inconsistencies, and the  
unresolved issues were referred to a third reviewer for arbitration.  
Table 2: Data Extraction  
Autho  
rs  
Y
ea  
r
Purpo  
se of  
Study  
Locat  
ion  
Study  
Type  
Sector  
Focus  
Passive  
Cooling entation  
Strateg  
y
Implem Thermal/  
Comfort  
Mechan Outcome  
Conte  
xtual  
Factor  
s
Study  
Limita  
tions  
isms  
s
Liu,  
C.,  
Xie,  
H.,  
Ali, H.  
M.,  
Liu, J.  
20 Assess  
22 the  
effect  
of  
Zanzi  
bar,  
Tanza  
nia  
Field  
study  
+
questi  
onnair  
e
Residential  
Orientat Questio  
PMV:  
1.23 &  
0.85;  
PPD:  
37.35%  
&
Hot-  
humid  
climate two  
;
historic gs;  
buildin  
g
Limite  
d to  
ion (N-  
S),  
natural  
nnaire  
surveys,  
field  
buildin  
passive  
cooling  
on  
ventilati measure  
on,  
window  
ment of  
indoor  
may  
not  
20.56%;  
historic  
al  
residen  
tial  
buildin  
gs  
shading, temperat below  
typolo  
general  
ise to  
other  
climate  
s
light-  
ures  
ASHRAE gy  
55  
colored  
walls  
Abdul  
kareem 25 te  
20 Evalua  
Abuja  
,
Simul  
ation  
Residential  
Cross-  
ventilati perform  
Building Up to  
Hot  
Model-  
20%  
climate based;  
, M.,  
Al-  
Maiya  
h, S.  
passive Nigeri study  
on,  
ance  
reduction  
in  
thermal  
discomfo  
rt;  
improved  
indoor  
comfort  
hours  
; urban  
low-  
cost  
housin  
g;  
govern  
ment  
bluepri  
nts  
field  
validati  
on  
design  
impact  
on  
a
shading  
devices,  
passive  
layouts  
simulati  
ons of  
six  
housing  
prototyp  
es  
limited  
low-  
and  
middle  
-
income  
housin  
g
Kaban  
shi, A., 23 se  
Choon  
ya, G.,  
Ameen  
, A.,  
20 Optimi  
Niam  
ey  
(Nige  
r),  
Nairo  
bi  
Simul  
ation  
study  
Residential/  
Institutional  
Windo  
w
sizing,  
IDA-  
ICE  
simulati  
WWR  
>70%  
Hot-  
dry and on  
hot-  
humid  
Focus  
windo  
w
design  
for  
cooling (Keny  
increases  
discomfo  
rt without climate other  
windo  
ws;  
orientati ons; PV  
on, PV-  
integrat  
ed  
panel  
modellin shading;  
g
s;  
passive  
strategi  
es not  
Liu,  
W.,  
internal  
blinds  
differe  
nt  
energy  
a),  
shading  
Harar  
hemisp  
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Mulen  
ga, E.  
reducti  
on  
e
improve  
PMV  
heres;  
varyin  
g
assesse  
d
(Zimb  
abwe)  
buildin  
g
orienta  
tions  
Santos, 20 Revie  
Multi  
ple  
Syste  
matic  
Residential/  
Commercial solar  
heating/  
cooling,  
Passive  
Review  
of  
existing  
studies;  
Summari  
sed  
thermal  
comfort  
improve  
Multipl Limite  
d to  
climate reporte  
M. M.,  
Ferreir  
a, A.  
22 w  
e
passive Africa literat  
solar  
system  
s for  
therma  
l
n
ure  
zones;  
cross-  
d
V.,  
countr review  
ies  
ventilati climate  
on,  
shading  
literatu  
re;  
Lanzin  
ha, J.  
C. G.  
zone  
compari  
sons  
ments per countr  
strategy:  
adaptive  
comfort  
models  
y
heterog  
compar eneous  
comfor  
t
isons  
metrics  
Benzia  
da, R.,  
Kacem  
i, M.,  
Mokht  
ari, A.  
M., et  
al.  
20 Assess  
25 urban  
morph  
ology  
and  
Bécha Simul  
Urban/Resid Shading ENVI-  
Thermal  
comfort  
rate: 22–  
60%; hot  
discomfo  
rt  
Arid  
climate assump  
Model  
r,  
ation + ential  
, high  
thermal  
inertia  
met &  
TRNSY  
S
Algeri field  
; urban  
morph  
ology;  
materia g  
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tions:  
limited  
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a
measu  
rement  
material simulati  
s, ons;  
compact thermal  
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g
materia  
ls for  
<1700h/y  
urban  
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mapping ear  
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t
Kousis  
, I.,  
Santa  
mouris  
, M.  
20 Evalua  
25 te the  
long-  
Multi  
ple  
urban  
sites,  
Literat  
ure  
review  
+
Urban/Resid Cool  
Review  
and  
synthesi  
s of 18  
studies  
Cooling  
energy  
savings:  
cool  
roofs  
60%,  
green  
roofs  
25%;  
thermal  
comfort  
improved  
but  
Multipl Future  
scenari  
climate o  
ential  
roofs,  
green  
roofs,  
urban  
greener  
y
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term  
zones;  
urban  
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effectiv Africa meta-  
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of  
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climate  
change  
.
inties;  
heterog  
eneity  
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analys  
is  
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declines  
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RCP8.5  
Tellac  
he, A.,  
Lazri,  
Y.,  
20 Compa  
25 re  
Algier Field  
Residential  
Mixed-  
mode  
ventilati ments;  
Field  
measure  
Current  
indoor  
discomfo  
Hot-  
summe  
r
Limite  
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s,  
Algeri simula  
tion  
+
therma  
l
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on,  
DesignB rt >33%  
Medite  
Laafer,  
A.,  
comfor  
t
passive  
shading, simulati  
uilder  
of annual  
hours;  
rranean climate  
climate scenari  
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Attia,  
S.  
models  
for  
Medite  
rranean  
climate  
s
natural  
ventilati occupan  
on  
ons;  
bedrooms ; socio- o; may  
are most  
vulnerabl  
e; model  
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other  
Africa  
n
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ws  
mismatch ons  
observed  
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s
Olawal 20 Evalua  
Kiam  
bu,  
Field  
Residential  
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shading, field  
green  
roofs,  
cool  
20-day  
Correlati  
on r=0.85 humid  
between  
observed  
Hot-  
Short  
duratio  
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21 te  
experi  
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simula  
tion  
Johnso  
n, O.  
P.,  
passive Keny  
measur  
es to  
measure  
ments;  
EnergyP and  
lus &  
DesignB reduced  
uilder  
simulati  
ons  
climate n (20  
;
microc  
a
days);  
limited  
tempor  
al  
covera  
ge  
Ajwan  
g, P.,  
Ondim  
u, S.  
N.  
reduce  
cooling  
deman  
d
paints  
predicted; limate  
variati  
ons;  
indoor  
temperatu low-  
res  
ventilat  
ion  
scenari  
o
Prozu  
ments,  
A.,  
Ménéz  
o, C.,  
Orum  
wense,  
E., et  
al.  
20 Assess  
25 therma  
Pan-  
Africa ure  
n
Literat  
Multiple  
sectors  
Passive  
cooling  
Survey  
and  
Highlight  
ed the  
Divers  
e
climate limited  
zones;  
inform  
al  
settlem  
ents;  
Broad  
review;  
l
review  
+
survey  
strategie review  
of  
(various existing  
lack of  
unified  
metrics;  
buildings  
often  
exceed  
comfort  
threshold  
s.  
comfor  
t
criteria  
and  
challen  
ges  
s
quantit  
ative  
therma  
l data  
)
standard  
s
buildin  
g codes  
Dodoo, 20 Exami  
Accra  
&
Simul  
ation  
Residential  
Orientat IDA-  
ion, ICE  
shading, dynamic 113.9–  
Cooling  
energy:  
Hot-  
humid  
and  
semi-  
humid  
climate may  
Simula  
tion-  
based;  
project  
ions  
A.,  
19 ne  
Ayark  
wa, J.  
climate Ashan  
change  
impact  
s on  
ti,  
Ghan  
a
ventilati simulati  
104.4  
kWh/m²;  
on, and  
high  
ons;  
Meteono increased  
therma  
l
comfor  
t &  
thermal  
mass  
rm  
climate  
data  
by 6–  
50%  
under  
future  
climates;  
indoor  
comfort  
deteriorat  
es  
s;  
future  
climate actual  
scenari  
os  
differ  
from  
perfor  
mance  
energy  
Source: Authors’ compilation (2026)  
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Data Synthesis Approach  
A mixed-methods synthesis, combining narrative and thematic approaches, was employed to integrate both  
quantitative and qualitative evidence on passive cooling strategies (PCS) in African buildings (Gough et al.,  
2025). This way, it was possible to spot similarities, differences, and connections between the use of PCS and  
thermal comfort in various environmental and economic settings.  
Phase I: Mapping Descriptively. The characteristics of the studies, types of PCS, thermal metrics (PMV, PPD,  
adaptive hours), and contextual factors (climate zone, building typology, occupancy) were compiled in tables  
that indicated the application of the strategies in different African climatic zones.  
Phase 2: Thematic Synthesis. Aqualitative data coding process was applied that was based on the work of Gough  
et al. (2025) to create analytical themes which connected the implementation of PCS with thermal comfort  
outcomes. The studies were compared particularly on the context-specific factors that supported (e.g., integration  
of local design, availability of materials) and those that were the obstacles (e.g., not enough shading, not much  
adaptation by the occupant), to find out the impact of climate, type of building, and social-cultural aspects on  
the efficacy.  
Phase 3: Context-Outcome Pathway Analysis. Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) was applied to identify  
and represent the specific context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) configurations, which depicted how the climatic  
and building contexts bring about the mediating of PCS efficiency (Piquet et al., 2024).  
The combination of the results from the different studies enhanced the validity of the interpretations, and the  
influence of the studies that contained limited thermal data clarity was assessed by conducting sensitivity  
analyses. The coding and the configurational analysis were made possible by the use of NVivo 14 and Microsoft  
Excel.  
Reporting  
The review was performed strictly following the PRISMA2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021), which guaranteed  
that the review process was totally transparent, methodologically rigorous, and reproducible. This reporting  
framework gives an elaborate account of the search strategy, eligibility criteria, study selection process, data  
extraction procedures, and the quality assessment of the included studies. The different stages of identification,  
screening, and inclusion are documented clearly using a PRISMA flow diagram. Through a systematic mix of  
narrative and thematic synthesis, the final report brings together quantitative thermal performance data and  
qualitative contextual insights. The report explicitly indicates the categorisation of passive cooling strategies,  
the ways of measuring or simulating the results of thermal comfort, and the influence of contextual factors such  
as prevailing climatic conditions, building type, and use patterns in the performance results. By thoroughly  
documenting all methodological steps, the review not only increases the reliability and reproducibility of its  
results but also facilitates other researchers to check and repeat the process. The transparency of reporting the  
results provides a guarantee that the evidence produced about the effectiveness of passive cooling in African  
buildings is not only available but also usable for the purpose of researchers, architects, planners, and  
policymakers who are looking for climate-responsive design solutions that are suitable for the conditions of the  
region.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  
Results  
Study Characteristics  
The systematic review was a wide-ranging one, indicating the use of passive cooling strategies in residential and  
urban buildings throughout Africa. It consisted of ten publications in peer-reviewed journals, which were based  
in different African countries like Zanzibar, Nigeria, Kenya, Algeria, Ghana, and some that were multi-country  
analyses (Ref. Table 3 below). The different kinds of study designs used included field measurements (Liu et al.,  
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2022; Olawale-Johnson et al., 2021), simulation-based modelling (Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025; Kabanshi  
et al., 2023; Dodoo & Ayarkwa, 2019; Tellache et al., 2025), and literature syntheses (Santos et al., 2022; Kousis  
& Santamouris, 2025; Prozuments et al., 2025). It was decided that both the real and the simulated thermal  
performance results would be assessed comprehensively.  
The climatic conditions were classified into different categories based on the Köppen–Geiger zones, which was  
a way of standardising environmental variations and making comparisons between studies easier. The studies  
included:  
Hot-humid (Aw): Zanzibar, Abuja, Nairobi, Kiambu, and Ghana; these places are characterised by high  
temperature, high humidity and rain that changes a lot from one season to another, thus having an impact  
on the effectiveness of natural ventilation and thermal comfort of the residents.  
Arid (BWh): Béchar and Niamey; these regions get sunlight of very high intensity, have very low  
humidity, and very big differences between day and night. Solids with high thermal inertia and shading  
are the only solutions to cope with such a situation.  
Mediterranean hot-summer (Csa): Algiers; moderate humidity during the long dry and hot summer,  
where adaptive ventilation and mixed-mode strategies were tested.  
Subtropical highland (Cwb): Harare; mild temperate climate with not extreme seasons, informing design  
changes for window orientation and envelope insulation.  
Pan-African reviews: Provided a cross-climatic synthesis and included various thermal zones and  
assessments of the strategies from vernacular-to-contemporary ones.  
The variety of locations and climates in the chosen studies points to the necessity for solutions of passive cooling  
that are specific to the context. Research in hot-humid regions revealed the significance of cross-ventilation and  
shading, while dry areas showcased the application of thermal mass and reflective surfaces. The combination of  
Köppen–Geiger classifications provides a methodical arrangement of thermal performance results, which then  
allows for further meta-analyses and thematic syntheses across the various climates of Africa.  
Table 3: Study Characteristics  
Study  
Location  
Climate Zone (Köppen–Geiger)  
Notes  
Liu et al., 2022  
Zanzibar, Tanzania  
Aw (Tropical savanna, hot-humid)  
Hot, humid with  
pronounced wet/dry  
seasons; natural  
ventilation critical  
Abdulkareem &  
Al-Maiyah, 2025  
Abuja, Nigeria  
Aw (Tropical savanna, hot-humid)  
Warm, humid; focus on  
low-/middle-income  
residential prototypes  
Kabanshi et al.,  
2023  
Niamey (Niger),  
Nairobi (Kenya),  
Harare (Zimbabwe)  
Niamey: BWh (Hot desert, arid);  
Nairobi: Aw (Tropical savanna, hot-  
humid); Harare: Cwb (Subtropical  
highland, mild temperate)  
Multi-city comparison;  
window orientation and  
shading assessed  
Santos et al.,  
2022  
Pan-African review  
Mixed (hot-humid, hot-dry, arid,  
Mediterranean)  
Broad literature  
synthesis; climate-  
specific strategy trends  
mapped  
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Benziada et al.,  
2025  
Béchar, Algeria  
BWh (Hot desert, arid)  
Urban morphology in  
arid conditions: high  
thermal inertia materials  
used  
Kousis &  
Santamouris,  
2025  
Multi-African urban  
environments  
Hot-humid, hot-dry, arid  
Cool roofs, green roofs,  
and urban greenery  
assessed across climates  
Tellache et al.,  
2025  
Algiers, Algeria  
Csa (Mediterranean hot-summer)  
Aw (Tropical savanna, hot-humid)  
Residential buildings;  
adaptive thermal  
comfort models tested  
Olawale-Johnson Kiambu, Kenya  
et al., 2021  
Passive measures: solar  
shading, green roofs,  
cool paints  
Prozuments et  
al., 2025  
Pan-African  
Hot-humid, hot-dry, arid,  
Mediterranean  
Indoor thermal comfort  
regulations and gaps  
assessed  
Dodoo &  
Ayarkwa, 2019  
Greater Accra &  
Ashanti, Ghana  
Aw (Tropical savanna, hot-humid)  
Residential buildings:  
climate change  
projections for thermal  
comfort  
Passive Cooling Strategies Implemented  
The research revealed a wide range of passive cooling strategies utilised in modern African architecture,  
including interventions at both the level of buildings and large urban and landscape-scale measures.  
Natural Ventilation: Among the methods evaluated most often were cross-ventilation and mixed-mode  
ventilation (Liu et al., 2022; Tellache et al., 2025). The approaches exploit prevailing wind patterns and  
buoyancy-driven airflow (temperature) to aid heat dissipation inside the buildings. Mixed-mode systems in  
which natural ventilation is combined with intermittent fan use were particularly beneficial in hot-humid regions  
by lowering indoor temperature and creating more satisfied occupants regarding their thermal conditions.  
Shading Devices: Most of the studies focused on external and internal shading devices such as overhangs,  
louvres, photovoltaic (PV) panels, and blinds (Kabanshi et al., 2023; Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025), where  
external and internal shading comprise the proposed methods for reducing indoor solar heat gains. The  
orientation and positioning of the shading devices played a crucial role in the extent of solar heat mitigation,  
with PV panels offering the bonus of cooling and electricity generation. The studies pointed out the need for  
careful and specific consideration of the pattern of sunlight coming from east and west, where it is at its highest,  
especially in regard to the incorporation of different types of optimisation.  
High Thermal Inertia Materials: Among the solutions in the context of arid and hot-dry climates, the adaptations  
of building envelopes using stone, Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (CSEBs), and light-colored walls were  
mentioned (Benziada et al., 2025; Dodoo & Ayarkwa, 2019). The heat was then absorbed and delayed to transfer,  
indoor temperature peaks were consequently down, and during daily ups and downs, the comfort of the residents  
was even improved.  
Urban and Landscape Interventions: Broader-scaled strategies covered compact urban forms, increased  
vegetation, and the introduction of cool or green roofs (Kousis & Santamouris, 2025; Benziada et al., 2025). Not  
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only did these actions help to decrease the local urban heat islands, but they also worked in favour of building-  
level strategies by mildening the microclimatic conditions, thus enhancing overall thermal resilience.  
Collectively, these interventions highlight the multi-scalar aspect of passive cooling, that is, building envelope  
design, orientation, material selection and urban morphology have to be harmoniously matched with climatic  
conditions in order to obtain the best thermal comfort outcomes in Africa.  
Thermal Comfort Outcomes  
The thermal comfort conditions are assessed quantitatively through the studies included, using such standardised  
techniques as the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD). The field  
surveys held in the historical houses and other buildings in Zanzibar showed the PMV to be from 0.85 to 1.23  
and PPD to be between 20–37% (Liu et al., 2022), which all pointed to the thermal conditions being just over  
the ASHRAE 55 comfort limit. The results have shown that the residents' discomfort was moderate, and this was  
caused by the passive cooling measures applied. Hence, such hot-humid areas are badly in need of new strategies  
in the form of materials for building envelopes. The impact of passive measures was further quantified through  
simulated temperature reductions.  
The interventions like solar shading, cross-ventilation and roof insulation in the prototypes of residential  
buildings in sub-Saharan countries caused a decrease in the indoor temperature by 3–5°C with respect to the  
particular climate and building design (Olawale-Johnson et al., 2021; Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025). These  
reductions are acceptable within the boundary of the adaptive comfort principles that also provide measurable  
increments in occupants' contentment. Moreover, the reductions in the demand for cooling energy have been  
reported. The combination of shading devices, natural ventilation and urban greening has resulted in 20–60%  
energy savings, thus demonstrating the fact that the in-house-mechanical-air-conditioning system can be made  
less dependent on them (Kabanshi et al., 2023; Kousis & Santamouris, 2025).  
Performance trends depended on climate: in hot-humid zones, natural ventilation and shading were the most  
effective, as controlling airflow and solar gain were vital, while high thermal inertia materials, like stone and  
compressed stabilised earth blocks, were especially suited for arid climates, as they could buffer the temperature  
extremes of the day and night. These results combined are a clear demonstration of the necessity for passive  
strategies tuned to the context and also providing quantitative benchmarks for the design of thermally resilient  
structures in Africa’s different climate areas.  
Contextual Observations  
According to the analysis of the studies included, residential building applications had the most, and there were  
relatively few studies on commercial or institutional types. This indicates that the research was conducted mainly  
on the spaces where the occupants are the main concern and where passive cooling has a direct impact on the  
comfort of a person daily, but at the same time, it shows the critical gap of evidence for large-scale or high-  
occupancy buildings, which might have a different response to bioclimatic interventions. Historical and  
vernacular designs showed and proved to be very effective in making the adaptive elements work (e.g., building  
orientation, selection of materials, and layouts for passive ventilation) (Liu et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2022).  
These methods not only made the most of the climate knowledge that was part of the traditional architecture but  
also set up the ways for the integration of the vernacular principles with the modern design, especially in the  
case of hot-humid and arid zones. Various methodological limitations were pointed out in the studies analysed  
one after the other. Field measurements were usually for a short time only; therefore, the capture of seasonal  
variability was limited, while simulation studies depended on assumptions concerning occupancy patterns and  
internal gains. The reporting of thermal outcomes varied from study to study, among others, differences in  
PMV/PPD calculations, adaptive comfort hours, and temperature differential units. Besides that, there was no  
consistency in the standardisation of thermal metrics, which made the synthesis across studies and quantitative  
comparison very difficult. It is pivotal that these issues are addressed in future research, as only then will it be  
possible to develop guidelines based on performance for passive cooling destined for various African contexts  
that are robust in nature.  
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DISCUSSION  
Efficacy of Passive Cooling Strategies  
The compilation of the studies that have been reviewed indicates that passive cooling methods that are integrated  
always have a better performance than single-strategy implementations (Prozuments et al., 2025). Grouping  
shading devices, natural or mixed-mode ventilation, and high-thermal-inertia materials resulted in a synergistic  
effect of indoor temperature reductions and improvements in comfort levels of the occupants. This is an  
affirmation of the importance of bioclimatic design principles, where the building envelope's adaptation, airflow  
management, and thermal mass must all work together to mitigate the extremes of day-night and seasonal  
temperature changes. Simulations and field experiments, along with studies, confirm the need for an adaptation  
specific to the climate. The strategies for cross-ventilation greatly improved the thermal comfort in hot-humid  
regions, making use of the wind that was blowing to remove the heat that was both latent and sensible. On the  
other hand, in dryland or hot-dry climates, ventilation was not adequate by itself; for the performance to be  
effective, it had to be combined with shading elements or high thermal inertia materials to reduce solar gains and  
diurnal temperature swings (Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025; Benziada et al., 2025). Urban scale interventions  
consisting of compact building structures, increasing vegetation, and using green or reflective materials provided  
two-fold benefits: improved microclimates and reduced urban heat island effects (Kousis & Santamouris, 2025).  
The findings indicate the need for design strategies operating at multiple levels, where on-site or neighbourhood  
combinations of building-level passive measures yield the best thermal performance. In short, the results  
highlight the fact that context-bound combined passive measures are the only way to cope with the competition  
between resilient and energy-saving comfort levels in modern African architecture.  
Climate-Dependent Performance Patterns  
The use of passive cooling strategies in African buildings was greatly influenced by the climatic conditions,  
which was a strong indication of the necessity of making design prescriptions that are site-specific. In hot-humid  
areas, the most efficient strategies were those that highlighted the use of natural ventilation and shading. The use  
of cross-ventilation not only helped the removal of latent heat but also brought down the indoor humidity levels,  
while the use of window overhangs and external shading devices reduced the gain of solar energy through the  
windows. The actual measurements from Zanzibar and Algiers showed that there were PMV improvements  
(0.85–1.2) and PPD reductions (20–37%) that were in the moderate range, which means that the use of  
ventilation may not completely counteract the discomfort to the full extent during peak periods of heat (Liu et  
al., 2022; Tellache et al., 2025). On the other hand, in hot-dry and arid regions, the use of high thermal inertia  
materials such as stone, compressed stabilised earth blocks, and light-colored walls gave a considerable  
advantage. These materials made it possible to control temperature controlled by diurnal changes, consuming  
heat during the day and releasing it at night, thereby reducing indoor overheating and making it comfortable  
during the hottest hours (Benziada et al., 2025; Dodoo & Ayarkwa, 2019). Sometimes the main surface was not  
enough for their performance, even with the above mentioned measures, thus some complementary measures  
had to be taken, like reflective surfaces and strategic shading.  
Mediterranean hot-summer climates have shown a strong necessity for the use of hybrid strategies in the future.  
The integration of mixed-mode ventilation together with adaptive shading and thermal mass resulted in the  
occupants being able to maintain their comfort levels despite the seasonal changes, especially during the times  
of great diurnal variation (Tellache et al., 2025). By and large, the passive cooling effectiveness has been proven  
to be very situation-specific; thus, it calls for the designers to take into account not only the type of the strategy  
but also the local climate, building typology, and occupancy patterns. It is through the use of standardised  
performance metrics like PMV, PPD, and adaptive comfort hours that the necessary cross-study comparisons  
will be made possible and the evidence-based bioclimatic guidelines for African architecture will be established.  
Vernacular-Contemporary Integration  
A notable finding throughout the literature that was studied is the integration of the old and the new, where the  
various cooling techniques of the past are combined with modern rules of building. Thus, the traditional and  
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native methods, like the previously mentioned, north-south orientation of buildings, courtyard ventilation, high  
thermal mass walls, and light-colored finishes, were shown to have natural and effective qualities of adapting to  
the climate, which made the moderation of the indoor temperatures very effective (Liu et al., 2022; Santos et al.,  
2022). The use of these historical methods in the design of buildings provided the necessary help to cope with  
the heat, and this was especially in the case of the low-income and informal settlements where the poor  
availability of resources prevents the use of energy-consuming active cooling systems and hence the heating that  
was done using these methods becomes the only way out for the poor in such areas. Contemporary adaptation  
such as building-integrated photovoltaic (PV) shadings, coatings that reflect, and windows-to-walls ratio being  
optimised, on the other hand, improved the performance of the old ways without altering the comfort of the  
occupants beyond the standards set by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning  
Engineers (ASHRAE) and the adaptive comfort (Kabanshi et al., 2023; Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025). One  
such pairing was the combination of the cross-ventilation through courtyards and the position of the PV panels  
so that they got the sun at the right angle; this allowed cooling and energy production to take place at the same  
time, and thus the mechanical systems were not used as much. The combination of local wisdom and modern  
simulation-based design is indicative of a context-aware strategy that adapts to the local climate, building type,  
and socio-economic limitations. This mixed-method approach not only maintains cultural heritage but also  
pushes the development of biomimetic design frameworks based on African architecture. The results indicate  
that the next regulations and standards should, in a way, directly increase and reward the fusion of traditional  
and modern techniques to achieve the most comfortable indoor climate, minimise power consumption, and  
increase resistance to climate change.  
Thermal Comfort Benchmarking  
According to the review, there was a wide gap between the design intentions and the thermal comfort of the  
users. Many modern African buildings that used passive cooling techniques did not always comply with the  
ASHRAE 55 or EN 16798 standards (Liu et al., 2022; Dodoo & Ayarkwa, 2019). Data from both field and  
simulations showed the PMV values often going beyond the range of ±1, along with PPD values that sometimes  
exceeded 20-30%, especially in the case of single-strategy interventions. That is to say, the outcomes revealed  
that depending on just one of the passive measures, such as natural ventilation, shading, or high-inertia materials,  
would only alleviate the thermal stress to a small extent. On the other hand, integrated, multi-pronged approaches  
are put forth as being crucial for comfort thresholds acceptance. So, the combination of ventilation, solar control,  
and thermal mass in great detail according to the climate zone, building typology, and occupancy pattern gave  
the most consistent results in reducing indoor temperature shifts and discomfort hours. This benchmarking  
demonstrates the fundamental requirement for evidence-based design calibration, where cooling systems using  
passive means are assessed quantitatively against the standards rather than considered effective. Moreover, the  
diverse reporting of thermal performance across studies points out the need for a common PMV/PPD  
measurement protocol in African countries that allows more substantial cross-case comparisons and the tracing  
of climate-responsive building practices that are adaptable and appropriate.  
Energy Implications and Climate Resilience  
By reflecting the influence of passive cooling strategies directly on the building energy demand, the combination  
of the integrated methods resulted in the power needed for cooling to be reduced by 20–60%, depending on the  
climate zone and the strategy used (Kabanshi et al., 2023; Kousis & Santamouris, 2025). With the use of shading  
devices, the improved cross-ventilation in hot-humid areas decreased the number of hours that helped discomfort  
to reach peak levels, thus there was less dependence on the mechanical cooling system. In the case of arid and  
hot-dry zones, the use of high thermal mass materials and reflective surfaces moderated the indoor temperature  
so that less energy was consumed by the active cooling systems. Facilitating urban-scale approaches, the  
approaches of compact building forms, integration of vegetation, and planting of cool/green roofs helped not  
only in localised thermal comfort improvement but also in urban heat-island effect mitigation and, thus, the  
overall climate resilience (Benziada et al., 2025; Kousis & Santamouris, 2025). The findings underscore the fact  
that passive cooling should not be seen as a concern only at the building level but as a city-wide urban adaptation  
strategy with the potential, among others, to cut down heat-related illness, to increase the comfort of the people  
living in the city and to make energy usage more equitable in the less affluent African cities. The results signal  
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a strong interdependence between thermal comfort and sustainability and the necessity for designers and  
policymakers to think of new building regulations and urban planning frameworks that are simultaneously  
evidence-based, climate-responsive, and incorporate passive strategies. Acknowledging the synergy, the non-  
simultaneous provision of energy saving, and the comfort of the occupants, as well as their resilience to the  
effects of rising temperatures, is the route to addressing the vulnerabilities from both the environmental and  
socio-economic aspects.  
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS  
The comprehensive evaluation of ten studies conducted after 2018 on the application of passive cooling strategies  
in modern African architecture shows the following major points:  
1. Strategy Effectiveness: The combination of the passive measures including natural ventilation, shading,  
and materials with high thermal inertia, has always produced better outcomes than applying one measure  
at the time, bringing about improvements of about 3 to 5 degrees Celsius in temperature and saving up  
to 60% of cooling energy (Olawale-Johnson et al., 2021; Kabanshi et al., 2023).  
2. Climate-Dependent Performance: The performance of each method was highly dependent on the  
particular area's climate. In the hot-humid areas, cross-ventilation and shading were the most helpful,  
whereas in the arid and hot-dry areas, high thermal mass and reflective surfaces were the most crucial  
(Abdulkareem & Al-Maiyah, 2025; Benziada et al., 2025).  
3. Vernacular-Contemporary Integration: The styles of the past and the ones used by the locals provided the  
adaptive models, and their combination with modern technologies like PV shading and reflective coatings  
not only increased the comfort of the dwellers but also the cultural heritage conservation (Liu et al., 2022;  
Santos et al., 2022).  
4. Thermal Comfort Gap: A majority of the buildings did not comply with the ASHRAE 55 and EN 16798  
standards, thus pointing out a gap in performance between the design intent and the actual indoor comfort.  
The application of single-strategy interventions was particularly ineffective, and thus, the necessity for  
context-specific, multi-faceted solutions was highlighted (Dodoo & Ayarkwa, 2019).  
5. Urban and Energy Implications: Urban-scale interventions, such as compact layouts, planting, and  
cool/green roofs, quickened thermal comfort and decreased urban heat-island effects, thus laying the  
ground for energy-efficient and climate-resilient urban development (Kousis & Santamouris, 2025;  
Benziada et al., 2025).  
The results bring out the necessity of climate-responsive, evidence-based passive design, which combines  
vernacular knowledge with modern techniques, for thermal comfort, energy efficiency, and urban resilience in  
different African situations, as is the case with the majority of the partners involved in the project.  
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
The current systematic review of the literature brought together empirical evidence on passive cooling strategies  
(PCS) in the present-day architecture of Africa, with a specific emphasis on their thermal comfort outcomes. It  
was found that the interventions embracing multiple strategies, always combining natural ventilation, shading  
devices, and the use of materials with high thermal inertia, often resulted in the best thermal performance, while  
the single-strategy approach ranked last. The strategy's efficacy depended on the climate: cross-ventilation and  
shading were most effective in tropical wet climates. At the same time, high-inertia materials and reflective  
surfaces played a significant role in arid and hot-dry climates. The use of historical and vernacular building  
techniques has been a great help in achieving cold-adapted design, especially when paired with modern  
technologies such as PV shading, cool roofs, and reflective coatings. The use of historical and vernacular  
building techniques has been a great help in achieving cold-adapted design, especially when paired with modern  
technologies such as PV shading, cool roofs, and reflective coatings. The advantages notwithstanding, there  
remains a significant mismatch between what the designers intended and what the occupants perceived as  
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comfortable, as many buildings do not comply with the thermal standards set by ASHRAE 55 and EN 16798.  
The differences in how the metrics were reported, the short duration of the measurements, and the limited number  
of studies on commercial or institutional buildings have all contributed to the findings being less applicable. On  
the other hand, urban-scale measures, such as the inclusion of trees, compact layouts, and green/cool roofs, not  
only mitigate heat-island effects but also contribute to energy savings and increased occupant comfort and health.  
RECOMMENDATIONS  
1. Integrated Design Implementation: The architects and engineers must focus on the use of multi-pronged  
passive cooling strategies specifically for each climate area, where they combine natural ventilation, shading,  
and thermal mass in a way that suits the location.  
2. Evidence-Based Benchmarking: The thermal comfort assessments should employ the PMV/PPD protocols  
that are universally acknowledged so that their results can be compared across different cases, and the design of  
guidelines for specific contexts can be supported.  
3. Vernacular Knowledge Integration: The building site orientation, choice of materials, and design of courtyards,  
which are the main elements of indigenous architectural practices, must be increasingly incorporated into modern  
architecture in an effective way that continues to communicate the cultural aspect while also improving the  
effectiveness.  
4. Policy and Code Development: The governments and professional organisations should change the regulations  
and standards about construction to recognise the passive cooling techniques that have been accepted as effective  
ones, especially in the case of low-cost housing and the areas of cities that are most affected by climate change,  
thus also aiding SDG 7 and climate change resistance goals.  
5. Urban Planning Considerations: It is necessary to incorporate urban planning changes, such as adopting more  
compact structures, adding vegetation, and installing green roofs into city master plans as a means of alleviating  
urban heat islands and improving energy efficiency.  
6. Future Research Directions: Research should not be limited to the residential sector but also include studies  
on commercial and institutional buildings, utilise longer field measurements, and do systematic evaluations of  
the hybrid configurations of vernacular and modern passive cooling systems based on the climate scenarios  
projected.  
In conclusion, the mitigation of climate change impacts through the adoption of climate-responsive, evidence-  
based passive cooling strategies would not only upgrade thermal comfort levels but also help in reducing energy  
consumption as well as increasing urban resilience throughout Africa’s varied climatic regions, thus making it a  
sustainable route.  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  
The author recognises the efforts of scholars based on which this review was based. The input of the colleagues  
and reviewers whose comments and discussions contributed to fine-tuning the conceptual and analytical  
direction of the study is also appreciated. The author should take care of any remaining limitations.  
Disclosure statement  
The author reports the absence of any personal or institutional connection which could have defined the  
behaviour or display of this review.  
Competing Interests  
According to the author, there were no competing financial, professional or personal interests that might have  
influenced the objectivity of this work.  
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Additional information  
The article is a systematic review of studies that relied only on peer-reviewed published articles. There was no  
primary data on which it was based, and thus, there was no need to obtain ethical approval.  
Funding  
No special grant was provided in the form of any funding agency, either in the public, commercial, or not-for-  
profit sector.  
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