functioned as a nexus of civilizations for over 5,000 years. This forensic historiography integrates archaeological

artifacts, ancient inscriptions, genetic analyses, demographic records, and contemporary chronicles to investigate

the interconnected histories of Jewish, Arab (including Palestinian), and other Levantine populations. It

prioritizes empirical evidence while acknowledging interpretive challenges, highlighting themes of continuity,

conquest, assimilation, and conflict. Genetic and archaeological data suggest substantial ancestral overlap among

Levantine groups from the Bronze Age, with modern Lebanese populations exhibiting particularly high

continuity with ancient Canaanites. Ottoman-era demographics reveal a predominantly Arab Muslim and

Christian population in Palestine, with gradual Jewish increases through immigration in the 19th century. Though

modern national identities formed amid 19th- and 20th-century nationalism, colonialism, and geopolitical shifts,

this study posits that the Israel-Palestine conflict derives primarily from 20th-century developments rather than

records, and census data. This methodology seeks to mitigate polarized narratives that designate one group as

indigenous and another as intrusive. Archaeological and genetic evidence indicates considerable continuity

among Levantine populations, with Jews and Palestinians sharing significant ancestry traceable to ancient

Canaanites and Israelites (Agranat-Tamir et al., 2020; Haber et al., 2017). However, historical contingencies—

such as conquests, exiles, and imperial partitions—have contributed to the formation of distinct identities.

Scholarly interpretations vary, with some emphasizing cultural assimilation and others highlighting disruptions

(e.g., Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001; Khalidi, 2006).

Prehistoric and Bronze Age Foundations: The Canaanite Substrate (ca. 10,000–1200 BCE)

Human habitation in the region commenced with Natufian hunter-gatherers circa 12,000 BCE, transitioning to

Neolithic agrarian settlements at locations such as Jericho (ca. 9000 BCE). By the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000

al., 2020). A 2020 study of 93 individuals from sites in Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon modeled Canaanites as

descendants of local Neolithic farmers and Zagros-related migrants, with limited evidence of extensive external

replacement (Agranat-Tamir et al., 2020). However, these estimates are subject to interpretive variability due to

sampling constraints.

The earliest extrabiblical reference to "Israel" is found on the Merneptah Stele (ca. 1208 BCE), an Egyptian

victory inscription declaring: "Israel is wasted, its seed is not" (Hasel, 1998). This portrays Israel as a population

Iron Age Kingdoms: Israel and Judah (ca. 1200–586 BCE)

Highland settlements featuring distinctive architecture—such as four-room houses and collared-rim jars—

appeared in the central hills, signaling the ethnogenesis of ancient Israel (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

Biblical accounts depict a United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon, succeeded by the divided

kingdoms of Israel (north) and Judah (south).

Epigraphic corroboration includes the Tel Dan Stele (mid-9th century BCE), an Aramaic inscription referencing

the "House of David," supporting the existence of a Judahite dynasty (Biran & Naveh, 1993). Assyrian annals

(e.g., the Black Obelisk) and the Moabite Mesha Stele (ca. 840 BCE) attest to Israelite monarchs such as Omri

and Ahab. The northern kingdom succumbed to Assyria in 722 BCE, and Judah to Babylon in 586 BCE, resulting

Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Eras: Diaspora and Resilience (332 BCE–636 CE) Alexander

the Great's conquest (332 BCE) introduced Hellenization. The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) temporarily

reinstated Jewish autonomy under the Hasmoneans. Roman integration (63 BCE) precipitated revolts: the First

Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE) and Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE), leading to Jerusalem's destruction and the

renaming to Aelia Capitolina.

Jewish communities endured in Galilee and the diaspora, as evidenced by the Dead Sea Scrolls and Byzantine

synagogues (e.g., Capernaum). By the 4th century CE, Christianity predominated, yet Jews, Samaritans, and

others persisted. Pre-Islamic Arabs, including Nabataeans and Ghassanids, maintained a southern presence

(Hoyland, 2014).

The Arab Conquest and Early Islamic Period: Assimilation, Not Replacement (634–1099 CE)

Non-Muslim contemporaneous accounts, such as Sebeos's chronicle, depict treaties rather than widespread

displacement. Muslim chroniclers (e.g., al-Baladhuri) stress pacts maintaining local administration. Islamization

Genetic evidence suggests Palestinians exhibit approximately 81–87% Bronze Age Levantine ancestry,

comparable to other Levantines, with minor East African and European admixtures (Agranat-Tamir et al., 2020;

Haber et al., 2017). However, these figures are estimates derived from limited samples and models, subject to

revision.

Medieval to Ottoman Rule: A Provincial Backwater (1099–1917 CE)

Crusader polities (1099–1187 CE) were ephemeral; Saladin's Ayyubids recaptured Jerusalem. Mamluk (1250–

1517 CE) and Ottoman (1517–1917 CE) periods ensued. The region was sparsely populated and economically

peripheral.

Ottoman censuses and records provide detailed insights into demographics, showing gradual population growth

throughout the 19th century. Early estimates indicate a population of approximately 350,000 in the early 1800s,

to Muslims 518,126, Jews 26,096, and Christians 66,928 by 1903 (McCarthy, 1990). In 1914, the population

approached 600,000–750,000, remaining predominantly Arab, with Jews at around 60,000 (including 39,000

Ottoman citizens) (McCarthy, 1990).

These figures reflect waves of immigration, including Muslims from lost Ottoman territories and increasing

Jewish arrivals, alongside natural growth (McCarthy, 1990,).

Table 1. Population of various ethnic groups in late Ottoman Palestine (data from McCarthy, 1990).

The rise of modern nationalism in the southern Levant during the late Ottoman and British Mandate periods was

shaped by European anti-Semitism, the emergence of Zionism, and growing Arab opposition to Jewish

immigration and land acquisition. The First Aliyah (1882–1903), often regarded as the beginning of organized

Zionist immigration, brought approximately 25,000–35,000 Jews primarily from Eastern Europe, fleeing

Zionist military strategies and Palestinian displacements, while traditionalists like Efraim Karsh argue Arab

disunity and rejectionism were pivotal (Morris, 2001; Shlaim, 2001; Karsh, 2002). Palestinian narratives frame

The First Intifada (1987–1993) involved Palestinian uprisings, prompting the Oslo Accords (1993–1995),

establishing the Palestinian Authority and interim self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza (Tessler, 2009).