Stepwells are architectural marvels unique to India. Historically, they sustained groundwater, moderated

microclimates, and embedded water within cultural landscapes. Hydrological studies have shown that stepwells

slow runoff and recharge aquifers; yet, today they are largely treated as heritage structures, sidelined from water

policy.

Recasting heritage water systems as active infrastructure offers a pathway to climate-resilient urban water

planning. Drawing on comparative case evidence, governance reviews, and secondary sources, this paper

examines how traditional recharge systems can be repositioned within contemporary urban water management.

et al., 2022). Their nomenclature varies regionally, including vav, vavdi, vai, kalyani, baoli, and pushkarni. Early

Sanskrit scriptures and inscriptions refer to them as vapi or vapika (Sriparvathy and Salahsha, 2021). These

structures were not merely functional; they were carefully designed architectural expressions that harmonised

with the surrounding urban and rural landscapes.

balance in surrounding areas. At the same time, lake complexes functioned as extensive rainwater reservoirs,

moderating local microclimates, supporting biodiversity, and reducing dependence on direct rainfall.

Collectively, stepwells and lake systems formed resilient hydrological networks that were seamlessly integrated

into urban life, representing an early form of sustainable water management that combined technical expertise

with social and environmental awareness.

Today, however, this once self-sufficient system has been systematically sidelined. Rapid urbanisation,

encroachment, unplanned construction, and the expansion of impervious surfaces have disrupted historic water

linkages. Recharge nodes that were once integral to local water security have been neglected, many erased, while

others survive only as architectural heritage or tourist attractions. In their place, cities have become increasingly

reliant on borewells and groundwater extraction, accelerating aquifer depletion and creating long-term

Dependence on contemporary extraction techniques has resulted in widespread and rapid groundwater depletion

across India. Groundwater tables in northwestern India declined by more than one foot annually from 2002 to

2008, despite near-normal rainfall. Agricultural pumping subsidies, originally intended to support resource-poor

farmers, have inadvertently encouraged overextraction, with agricultural power subsidies increasing almost

threefold between 2000/01 and 2013/14 in real terms.

Combined with the absence of metering or usage monitoring, this has resulted in rates of aquifer depletion that

far exceed natural recharge, contributing to long-term water insecurity and increasing the risk of conflict over

scarce water resources (Banerjee and Gulati, 2016).

Assessments of groundwater status at the administrative-unit level reveal an alarming trend. Of the 6,607

assessed units, more than 1,000 are classified as overexploited, while several hundred fall under critical or semi-

not merely as a heritage loss, but as evidence of systemic deficiencies in urban water governance, planning, and

sustainable resource management.

The scale of decline is striking. India is home to over 3,000 stepwells, yet only an estimated 400–500 retain any

functional hydrological role (DW, 2023), while the remainder stand derelict, filled with debris, or are preserved

solely as ornamental or tourist structures.

Gujarat alone contains approximately 570 stepwells (Mistry, 2024; Suhane, 2024), though only a small fraction

remain integrated into active water systems. Lake complexes exhibit a similar trajectory. Bengaluru, for instance,

historically supported more than 1,000 lakes; by 1961, this number had declined to 262, and today only 81

remain, of which just 33 are considered ecologically active (Bothra and Gowda, 2025).

The pattern of decline underscores the challenges of urbanisation, encroachment, pollution, and fragmented

The urban fabric evolved in harmony with this water infrastructure, embedding reservoirs, stepwells, and tanks

into everyday life. Today, however, these structures are largely treated as heritage relics, excluded from

This paper examines how traditional water systems can be repositioned within contemporary urban water

management through comparative case evidence and a review of secondary policies.

Addressing this oversight requires more than the conservation of heritage structures; it necessitates a re-

evaluation of climate resilience and water security in rapidly urbanising cities. Such an approach also demands

attention to the broader social, ecological, and economic implications of water infrastructure. Historic systems

Drawing on these principles, this study explores how traditional practices can inform sustainable water

management strategies that are not only efficient but also inclusive and environmentally robust. Integrating these

lessons into contemporary planning frameworks can enhance urban preparedness for future water crises, promote

equitable access to water resources, and strengthen urban ecosystems.

In this way, the study demonstrates that heritage-based knowledge and modern innovation can operate

synergistically to address the pressing water challenges of the twenty-first century.

Traditional water systems in India, such as stepwell systems, or baolis, johad systems, man-made ponds, and

structures located in smaller communities usually respond well to local, site-specific techniques of restoration,

i.e. Structural repairs, desilting and community-led maintenance.

Larger urban lakes, on the other hand, require a holistic approach involving land use planning, pollution control,

catchment interventions, and coordinated governance across multiple institutions and stakeholders. Previous

studies of restoration projects have indicated that technical solutions are usually not enough to guarantee

sustainability over time, that social participation, ecological considerations and institutional frameworks are

equally important for successful restoration of water systems.

The study of the dynamics of restoration efforts across different regions will provide a comprehensive

understanding of how to tailor restoration strategies to the unique environmental and socio-cultural conditions

in which they exist. Tables 1 and 2 provide valuable examples of both successful projects and projects that are

sensitive approaches, community participation, and coordinated governance can restore hydrological functions,

Table 2 highlights examples where restoration initiatives have faced significant challenges. Issues such as

fragmented governance, socio-economic pressures, insufficient stakeholder involvement, and catchment

Case

Example

Area

Results

Bellandur

and Varthur

lakes,

Bengaluru

Bellandur

Lake 366.9

ha; Varthur

Lake 190.8

interlinked

lakes.

Persistent

foaming;

incomplete

sewage

operational

constraints;

desilting

remains

unresolved.

Najafgarh

Jheel,

Reduced

from

Non-

compliance

states;

socio-

economic

inequities;

political

and

financial

constraints.

Anasagar

Lake,

Lake,

shore, and

varies

between 97

and 182 ha;

depth 1.9–

4.4 m.

Reliance

on

ion

measures;

limited

community

involveme

nt;

governance

delays;

funding

constraints;

unresolved

flooding

issues.

Throughout various locations, from Delhi’s Nizamuddin Baoli to Bhopal’s Bhojtal, Bengaluru’s Bellandur, and

restoration rarely aligns with sustained hydrological resilience. Initiatives spearheaded by organisations such as

the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP), and Tarun Bharat Sangh illustrate

that community engagement, ongoing monitoring, and catchment-scale planning are the most reliable indicators

of ecological recovery. In contrast, examples like Bellandur and Najafgarh Jheel reveal how fragmented

governance, inflows of untreated sewage, and interruptions in policy can threaten restoration efforts.

The comparative analysis of water heritage structures and water bodies in urban areas identifies discernible

trends that distinguish successful rehabilitation initiatives from non-successful or failed ones. The successful

examples in water heritage structure rehabilitation, such as the case of Hazrat Nizamuddin Baoli in Delhi, johads

However, the struggling and failed examples of lakes, namely those of Bellandur and Varthur Lakes in

Bengaluru, Najafgarh Jheel in Delhi-Haryana, and Anasagar Lake in Ajmer, bring out the deficiencies of the

present approaches of lake restoration. Having been proposed numerous times through means like sewage

The analysis highlights the point that the intervention in the water bodies for technical restoration or beauty

the macro-level of the water body system. The water bodies need to be treated not as isolated objects in the

From 1991 to 2011, the population of Ahmedabad almost doubled, increasing from 2.9 million to 5.6 million,

reflecting rapid urban growth in a semi-arid environment. This growth has intensified pressure on small and

decentralised water systems, threatening their ecological stability and sustainability (Mishra, Shukla & Iyer,

2019). The city’s urban identity has long been shaped by its stepwells, tanks, and lakes, which historically

provided both climatic moderation and reliable water security (Mistry, 2024).

Today, many of these systems stand neglected, reduced to heritage monuments rather than functioning elements

of urban hydrology, which has increased demand for freshwater and heightened vulnerability to climate stresses.

Urban expansion continues at a yearly rate of approximately 3.3%, resulting in the widespread development of

city outskirts and further limiting the availability of freshwater. As built-up areas replace open lands, natural

recharge zones for groundwater are lost, increasing reliance on centralised water sources and overexploited

borewells. Groundwater depletion is a particularly pressing issue, driven primarily by illegal extraction through

private borewells, which lower water tables by several metres each year and, over time, increasingly lead to

saline conditions. Simultaneously, river water quality deteriorates due to urban runoff and the discharge of

untreated waste, further compounding water scarcity challenges. (Aartsen et al., 2018).

These environmental challenges intersect closely with social inequality. Middle-class households often have

access to private borewells, but the water from these sources is becoming progressively more polluted, presenting

risks to health and hygiene. Residents of informal settlements, in contrast, depend almost entirely on a limited

municipal supply, which is often available for only a few hours per day. Even when households have