Page 493

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

Effect of International Migration on Unemployment and Poverty in

Nigeria: 1985 - 2020

Dr Ijeoma Blessing Unachukwu

, Anukam Chidozirim Stephen

Department of Economics Education School of Arts and Social Sciences Federal College of Education

Technical, Umunze, Anambra State, Nigeria

Department of Corporative and Rural Development Univesity of Agriculture and Environmental

Sciences Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150300040

Received: 19 March 2026; Accepted: 24 March 2026; Published: 09 April 2026

ABSTRACT

This study examined the effect of international migration, on unemployment, and poverty in Nigeria from 1985-

2020). The data used in this study were obtained from Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical bulletin (2020),

World Development Indicators and the KOF Swiss Economic Institute. These comprises of annual data of the

following variables unemployment rate and poverty index serves as the dependent variables in the two models

respectively while international migration remittances, Globalization Index, and Adult literacy rate serves as the

independent variables. The test statistics used in the analysis of data was; Auto Regressive Distributed Lag

(ARDL). The results showed that; International migration proxy by international migration remittances has a

positive and significant relationship with unemployment and a negative and significant relationship with poverty

in Nigeria. it was recommended that; Enlightenment campaigns directed at recipients of remittances regarding

the benefit of investing remittance money in small and medium scale enterprises be encouraged rather than using

the money as a substitute for labor income; Nigerian governments and their agencies should manage the economy

properly and put up policies that can help to eliminate poverty which has been identified as the major force that

pushes its citizens into migration. In other words, the formulation of National Migration Policy in 2015 is not

enough. There is need to develop an accompanying policy on poverty reduction to propel the migration policy

to success; the need for Government to encourage globalization, by embarking on trade liberalization policies in

order to accelerate and sustain industrial growth and in turn a reduce poverty. They should also monitor the

movement of factor inputs as well as imported and exported goods both in and out the country by way of creating

a well secured boarders across the country and a strong and efficient Custom Officials.

Keywords: International migration, international remittance, unemployment, poverty, globalization

INTRODUCTION

International migration has been identified as one of the pathways out of poverty by poor people from the

developing countries, especially from Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries (Rufai et al. 2019). The growth rate

of net migration in the region has been identified as the highest in the world (Darkwah and Verter 2014; Ogunniyi

et al. 2017). International migration is a factor that impacts the welfare of the household, the home community,

and in the end, the whole economy in various ways (Fonta et al. 2011; Nwaru et al. 2011). Interestingly, Nigeria

remains a major contributor to the net migration in the World. According to the World Development Indicator,

the country was responsible for about 17% of the net migration in Sub-Saharan region in 2017 (ILO 2019).

Various factors (push and pull) are often responsible for the movement of people away from their usual places

of residence. In Nigeria, high levels of unemployment, migrant remittances, population growth (Darkwah and

Verter 2014), unstable politics, ethno-religious conflicts, and poverty (Adepoju 2009; Young 2013) are the major

factors promoting the massive movement of both men and women across and outside the country (Darkwah and

Verter 2014). Poor economic conditions and high levels of poverty also force people to move as they search for

better living conditions, especially the youth and young adults Ghebru et al. (2018). Migration in most cases

does not only empower the migrant but is also known for its relationship with the geographical and occupational

Page 494

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

mobility of labor, as the probability of moving within occupations is often higher with migration (Ghebru et al.

2018; Basso et al. 2018).

International migration all over the world has been playing important roles in the respective economies. Cross-

border migration is among the strong factors that are driving globalization in recent decades. The patterns of this

movement over the years have been changing the size, structure and efficiency of labor markets, culture, political

situations, and people in many countries across the globe.

Labor market of Nigeria is fraught with high rate of unemployment and sluggish wage adjustment not explicitly

determined by market forces. More irreconcilable is that unemployment continues to increase in the face of

consistent economic growth. Further, wages respond sluggishly to inflation rate, thereby worsening workers’

welfare. High unemployment rate could be attributed to the composition of the country’s population.

Specifically, the youth constitute more than 60 per cent of total population but less than 30 per cent were able to

secure employment (NBS, 2010). Furthermore, young people are confronted with lack of demand for their newly

acquired skills, often not matching those required by the demand side of the labor market (IOM, 2010). Also,

the country has been experiencing rapid expansion of educational system which directly leads to increase in the

supply of educated manpower above the corresponding demand (Okafor, 2011).

These factors have continuously enlarged the poverty rate in Nigeria. According to the National Bureau of

Statistics (2020), 40.1% of Nigeria’s population is classified as poor, this entails that around 4 in 10 Nigerians

have real per capita expenditures below 137,430 Naira per year. As per the 2018/19 Nigeria Living Standards

Survey, over 80 million Nigerians fell below the poverty line before the covid-19 pandemic. The current estimate

suggests that the joint effects of the pandemic and population growth rate may warrant pushing additional 10

million people into the poverty line, with Nigeria set to have over a hundred million poor people by 2022. The

rural poor in Nigeria have even pulsating poverty incidence as high as 52.1% compared to 18.5% in urban areas

(NBS Nigeria Living Standard Survey, 2019; Lain & Vishwanath 2021). Against the background of this paper;

the study examines the nexus between international migration, unemployment, and poverty in Nigeria.

Objective of the study

The broad objective of this study is to examine the effect of international migration on unemployment, and

poverty in Nigeria. However, the specific objectives are:

1. To examine the relationship between migrant remittance and unemployment in Nigeria

2. To examine the relationship between migrant remittance and poverty in Nigeria

REVIEW RELARED LITERATURE

Conceptual Clarification

International Migration refers to change of residence over national boundaries, e.g. Nigeria to the USA. An

international migrant is someone who moves to a different country. International migrants are further classified

as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are those who moved with the legal

permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those who moved without legal permission, and refugees

are those crossed an international boundary to escape persecution. International migrants can also be said as

individuals who are strictly considered to have left their country of birth for another country based on one or

more of the factors mentioned above. Ifedi & Ezechi, (2018).

Unemployment is often defined by the classical economists as the excess supply of labor over the demand for

labor which is cause by adjustment in real wage. The Classical or real-wage unemployment occurs when real

wages for job are set above the market clearing level, causing number of job-seekers to exceed the number of

vacancies. Unemployment as defined by International Labor Organization (2009) is a state of joblessness which

occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks.

Page 495

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

THEORETICAL LITERATURE

This study follows a version of the neoclassical macroeconomic theory linking migration with labor market

condition developed by Kahanec et al. (2010). The theory recognizes the influence of labor union in wage and

employment determination in the face of immigration.

Meanwhile, Pryymachenko (2011) modifies the model to capture the case of source countries. Specifically, the

author pays attention to migration effect. Since the focus of this paper is on how migration influences the

unemployment and poverty, the Pryymachenko model is chosen as a framework. However, the study relaxes the

assumption of full employment found in the Pyrrmachenko (2011). Altruistic behaviour has been suggested in

the literature in the attempt to explain the motivation that underlies a migrant’s decision to remit.

Altruism is an ethical doctrine which was coined by the French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1852), as a

description of the ethical doctrine he favoured. Proponents of altruism hypothesis suggest that individual family

members are obligated to help each other and that this explains migrant remittance decisions, Rapport and

Docquier, (2006). The doctrine suggests that migrants will be willing to transmit resources to make up for the

income shortfall of family members for either their consumption or investment. Altruism hypothesis suggests

that a migrant will willingly sacrifice his or her own well-being or interest for the sake of the welfare of relations

due to the love and concern they may have for their relation’s welfare.

Empirical Literature

Okeke, (2021), examined the impact of international migrant remittances on unemployment rate in Nigeria using

two-stage least squares (2SLS) method to identify the impact of remittances on unemployment rate in Nigeria.

Findings reveal that international remittances affect unemployment negatively and there exists a unidirectional

causality between international migrant remittances and unemployment without feedback. The study

recommends that the government and other stakeholder should map out programmes that will sensitize majority

of the Nigerian populace on the benefit of investing remittance money so as to become entrepreneurs, create job

opportunities and become employers of labour.

Nwosu, Eteng, Ekpechu, Nnam, Ukah, Eyisi, & Orakwe, (2022), examined factors that propel youths to engage

in migration in spite of the dangers, as well as the relationship between bad governance, illegal migration and

modern slavery. Therefore, the study adopted qualitative research design using in-depth interviews to elicit

information from participants. Twenty-five youths from Umuozu community, Isiala-Mbano Imo State, Nigeria

was selected through stratified sampling technique. Descriptive statistics was used for data analysis. Findings

revealed that youths are aware of the dangers inherent in illegal migration yet, majority of them were willing to

risk migrating to foreign countries. Hence, there is urgent need for governments in Nigeria to institute measures

to reduce poverty and educate the youths in order to discourage illegal migration—the foundation for modern-

day slavery.

Esquivel and Huerta-Pineda (2006) investigated the effect of remittances on poverty condition among Mexican

households and find out that receiving remittance reduces the household's probability of being in food-based and

in capabilities-based poverty by 7.7 and 6.6 percentage points respectively. The authors concluded that these

effects represent a reduction of around 36 and 23 percent in the corresponding poverty rates for a typical

remittance-receiving household vis-a-vis a comparable non-remittance receiving household.

Evidence from the prevailing literature on international migration demonstrated that scanty studies have been

done to the best of our knowledge in the developed and developing countries to fathom the effect of international

migration on unemployment and poverty. However, the number of such studies is limited in Africa and

specifically very scarce in Nigeria. Few of the past studies dwelt on the economic, political and socio-cultural

factors that result in human trafficking, which is a form of migration. However, this study adopts the models of

Okeke, (2021), who examined the impact of international migrant remittances on unemployment rate in Nigeria

and Esquivel & Huerta-Pineda (2006) who investigated the effect of international remittances on poverty

condition among Mexican.

Page 496

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

METHODOLOGY

The research designed adopted in this study is expo factor research design. This is ideal for conducting social

research when is not possible or acceptable to manipulate the characteristics of human participant. Two models

were explored to examine the nexus between international migration, unemployment, and poverty in Nigeria.

The first model was adopted from the model of Okeke, (2021), who examined the impact of international migrant

remittances on unemployment rate in Nigeria, while the second model was adopted from the model of Esquivel

& Huerta-Pineda (2006) who investigated the effect of international remittances on poverty condition among

Mexican. However, the first model will examine the relationship between international migration and

unemployment in Nigeria, while the second model will used to examine the relationship between international

migration and poverty in Nigeria. The models are stated as thus:

UNR = (MREM, GOI, LTRA) 3.1

POVIDX= (MREM, GOI, LTRA) 3.2

Where:

UNR = represents unemployment rate

POVIDX= poverty index

MREM= migrant remittance recieved

GOI= globalization index

LTRA= adult literacy rate

Data Presentation Analysis and Interpretation

From Table 4.1 above, Adult literacy rate (LTRA) was integrated of order zero (I~(0)) as it was stationary at level

form. While unemployment rate (UNR), migrant remittance (MREM), globalization index (GOI), and poverty

index (POVIDX) weren’t not stationary at level form, but became stationary after first difference which implies

that the variables (MREM, POVIDX, GOI) were integrated of order one (I ~ (1)). The decision is based on the

fact the ADF statistics that is greater than the ADF critical values at 5%, we reject H

and conclude that the

variable is stationary. Since the variables are integrated of order one and zero and none of the variables is

integrated of order two. We therefore, apply the ARDL bound co-integration test.

Table 4.1: Summary of ADF Test Results at 5% Critical Value

Variable

ADF Test Statistics

Critical Value 5%

Order of Integration

Decision Rule

UNR

-5.0338

-2.9511

I⁓ (1)

Reject Ho

POVIDX

-5.7639

-2.9511

I⁓ (1)

Reject Ho

MREM

-3.8242

-2.9511

I⁓ (1)

Reject Ho

GOI

-5.9018

-2.9511

I⁓ (1)

Reject Ho

LTRA

-3.0849

-2.9484

I⁓ (0)

Reject Ho

Source: Authors Computation with E-views 12

A necessary condition for testing for ARDL bound co-integrating test is that each of the variables be integrated

of either of order one or zero or both (Pesaran, Shin and Smith, 2001). Since all the variables are integrated of

order one and zero, we proceeded to estimate the ARDL bound test. The null hypothesis of ARDL bound co-

integration is that the variables are not co-integrated as against the alternative that they are co-integrated. The

decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis if the F-statistics is greater than the upper bound critical values at

Page 497

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

chosen level of significance. From Table 4.2 the F-statistics for the model one is 5.112 and that of mode two is

4.742, both greater than the upper (I1) bound of 3.67 at 5% level of significance.

Thus, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is presence of co-integration in both models. This

implies that there is a long run relationship between international migration, Unemployment rate, and poverty in

Nigeria. Since there is a long run relationship, we therefore estimate the short run and long run ARDL analysis.

Table 4.2: ARDL Bound Co-integration (5% critical value) Test Result for the Models

Model

F-Statistics

Significance

level

Critical Bound Value

10 (Lower Bound)

11 (Upper Bound)

3.1

5.112

2.79

3.67

3.2

4.742

2.79

3.67

Source: Author’s Computation with E-views 12

Having ascertained that there exist a co-integrating relationship between international migration, unemployment

rate, and poverty in Nigeria, the short run relationship needs to be ascertained. From Table 4.3 above; the

coefficient of the error correction term (cointEQ) is statistically significant and carries the expected negative

sign at 5% level of significant, revealing that a short run relationship exist between international migration and

unemployment in Nigeria.

The speed of adjustment is -0.7872 that is 78.7% of the adjustment to equilibrium of the unemployment is

expected to occur in short run.

Table 4.3: Summary of Parsimonious Short Run Relationship Result between International Migration and

Unemployment Rate in Nigeria

Conditional Error Correction

Regression

Variable

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-Statistic

Prob.

CointEq(-1)*

-0.7872

0.1393

-5.6523

0.0000

Source: Author’s Computation with E-views 12

From Table 4.4 above; the coefficient of the error correction term (cointEQ) is statistically significant and carries

the expected negative sign at 5% level of significant, showing that a short run relationship exists between

international migration and poverty in Nigeria.

The speed of adjustment is -0.3934 that is 39.34% of the adjustment to equilibrium of poverty is expected to

occur in short run.

Table 4.4: Summary of Parsimonious Short Run Relationship Result between International Migration and

Poverty in Nigeria

Conditional Error Correction

Regression

Variable

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-Statistic

Prob.

CointEq(-1)*

-0.3934

0.0759

-5.2443

0.0000

Source: Author’s Computation with E-views 10

It’s imperative to ascertain the long run relationship that exists between international migration, unemployment,

and poverty in Nigeria.

Page 498

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

Table 4.5: Summary of Long Run Relationship between International Migration and Unemployment Rate

in Nigeria Result

Variable

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-Statistic

Prob.

MREM

0.000560

0.000262

2.134159

0.0487

GOI

1.385938

0.379959

3.647597

0.0022

LTRA

4.685396

0.878300

5.334623

0.0001

-314.9518

52.52293

-5.996463

0.0000

Source: Author’s Computation with E-views 12

Table 4.6: Summary of Long Run Relationship between International Migration and Poverty in Nigeria

Result

Variable

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-Statistic

Prob.

MREM

-0.000924

0.000305

-3.028222

0.0056

GOI

0.087772

0.558245

0.157228

0.8763

LTRA

-2.397722

0.803014

-2.985903

0.0062

189.4020

60.37251

3.137222

0.0043

Source: Author’s Computation with E-views 12

Interpretation of Long Run ARDL Result

Model 3.1

The long run coefficient in Table 4.5 shows that the joint impact of all exogenous variables (MREM, GOI, LTRA)

on the endogenous variable will amount to -314.95 units; this is on the basis that they are all held at constant. In

other word if all the exogenous variables are held at constant it will amount to -314.95-unit contribution to

unemployment rate (UNR). Migrant remittance (MREM) possessed a significant positive coefficient value of

0.0006; this implies that it shares a positive relationship with unemployment rate in Nigeria. Entailing that on

the long run, as migrant remittance received by Nigeria increases by a million dollars, it causes a 0.0006-unit

increase in unemployment rate (UNR) in Nigeria. Globalization index (GOI) has a positive significant coefficient

of 1.39, implying that as the global integration index of Nigeria increases by a unit, it will cause a 1.39 percent

increase in Nigeria’s unemployment rate in Nigeria. Adult literacy rate (LTRA) had a positive significant

coefficient of 4.69 suggesting that on the long run, as the percentage of literate adults aged 15 and above increases

by 1 percent, it causes the unemployment rate in Nigeria to rise by 4.69 percent.

Model 3.2

The long run coefficient from Table 4.7 above shows that the joint impact of all exogenous variables (MREM,

GOI, LTRA) on the endogenous variable will amount to 189.402 units; this is on the basis that they are all held

at constant. In other word if all the exogenous variables are held at constant it will amount to 189.402-unit

contribution to Poverty in Nigeria (POVIDX). Migrant remittance (MREM) has a negative significant coefficient

value of -0.001; this implies that migrant remittance has an inverse relationship with poverty in Nigeria. Entailing

that on the long run, as migrant remittance received by Nigeria increases by 1 million dollars, it causes the

Nigerian poverty rate to fall by 0.001 units. Globalization index (GOI) has an insignificant positive coefficient

of 0.09. This implies that there is a positive relationship between globalization and poverty in Nigeria. Entailing

that as Nigeria’s global integration rises by a unit, it will cause Nigeria’s poverty rate to increase by 0.09 percent.

Page 499

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

Adult literacy rate (LTRA) had a negative significant coefficient of -2.4. This implies that a negative relationship

exists between adult literacy rate and poverty in Nigeria; thus, as the percentage of literate adults aged 15 and

above increases by a percentage, it causes the Nigerian poverty rate to fall by 2.4%.

Test of Hypotheses

The individual test was carried out to test for joint significance of the independent variables on the dependent

variable at 5% level using t-probability and t-statistic shown in Table 4.5 and 4.6. The rule applied was: If t-

probability is greater than the prescribed level of 5% or 0.05, accept the null hypothesis, otherwise reject the null

hypothesis when f-probability is less than 0.05.

Hypothesis 1

: migrant remittance has no significant relationship with unemployment in Nigeria

Conclusion

From Table 4.5 above, the probability of t-stat of MREM was 0.0487, and less than 0.05 critical values. Thus,

we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that migrant remittance has a significant relationship with

unemployment in Nigeria

Hypothesis 2

: migrant remittance has no significant relationship with poverty in Nigeria

Conclusion

From Table 4.6 above, the probability of t-stat of MREM was 0.0056, and less than 0.05 critical values. Thus,

we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that migrant remittance has a significant relationship with poverty in

Nigeria.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of Findings

This study examined the effect of international migration, on unemployment, and poverty in Nigeria for a 36

year period, viz; (1985-2020). The following summarizes the research work; International migration proxy by

international migration remittances has a positive and significant relationship with unemployment in Nigeria;

and a negative and significant relationship with poverty in Nigeria.

Conclusion

This study examined the effect of international migration, on unemployment, and poverty in Nigeria for a 36

year period, viz; (1985-2020). In conclusion, International migration has a significant relationship with

unemployment and poverty in Nigeria.

Recommendations

Since International migration has a positive and significant relationship with unemployment, Enlightenment

campaigns directed at recipients of remittances regarding the benefit of investing remittance money in small and

medium scale enterprises be encouraged rather than using the money as a substitute for labor income; and Since

International migration has a negative and significant relationship with poverty, As a result of all this, the study

suggests that the Nigerian governments and their agencies should manage the economy properly and put up

policies that can help to eliminate poverty which has been identified as the major force that pushes its citizens

into migration. In other words, the formulation of National Migration Policy in 2015 is not enough. There is

need to develop an accompanying policy on poverty reduction to propel the migration policy to success.

Page 500

www.rsisinternational.org

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,

MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)

ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue III, March 2026

REFERENCES

1. Adepoju, A. (2006). Internal and international migration within Africa. In Migration in South and

Southern Africa: Dynamics and Determinants. Edited by Pieter Kok, Derik Gelderblom, John Oucho and

Johan van Zyl. Cape Town: Human Sciences Research Council.

2. Basso G., Francesco D, and Giovanni P. (2018). Immigrants, Labor Market Dynamics, and Adjustment

to Shocks in the Euro Area (No. w25091). Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research.

3. Darkwah, S., & Venter, N., (2014), Determinants of International Migration: The Nigerian Experience.

Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 62, 321–27.

4. Esquivel, G. and Huerta-Pinida, A (2006), Inter-American Development Bank,Remittances and Poverty

in Mexico: A Propensity Score Matching Approach, (IADB), September.

5. Ghebru, H., Mulubrhan A., George M., and Ogunniyi A. (2018) Role of Land Access in Youth Migration

and Youth Employment Decisions: Empirical Evidence from Rural Nigeria (No. 58). Washington, DC:

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

6. Ifedi, F. & Ezechi, K. (2018). Refugee, Migrant and Human Rights Crisis in Africa: The Libyan

Experience. Unpublished.

7. ILO. (2019) Global and Continental Policy Frameworks Guiding Labour Migration and Labour Mobility

in Africa. Abidjan: ILO Regional Office for Africa, Available online: www.ilo.org/africa (accessed on 22

April 2019).

8. International Labour Organisation (ILO), Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development

(OECD), and World Bank Group (WBG). (2009). The contribution of labour Mobility to Economic

growth. Paper presented at G20 Labour and Employment Minister’s Meeting, Ankara, Turkey, September

3–4.

9. Kahanec, M., Zaiceva, A., & Zimmermann, K. (2010). Economic Impacts of Poland and the Baltic States.

10. Lain, J. W., Vishwanath, T., Alik-Lagrange, A., Amankwah, A., Contreras-Gonzalez, I., Jenq, C., &

Sagesaka, A. (2021). COVID-19 in Nigeria: Frontline Data and Pathways for Policy. World Bank.

11. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), (2010). Annual Abstract of Statistics. Abuja: NBS Press.

12. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), (2019). Annual Abstract of Statistics. Abuja: NBS Press.

13. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), (2020). Annual Abstract of Statistics. Abuja: NBS Press.

14. Nwaru N., Chukwudi J., Onwuchekwa R., and Onyenweaku C. (2011) Impact of Migrant Remittances

on the Welfare of Arable Crop Farm Households in Southeastern Nigeria. Human Ecology Review, 18,

159–66.

15. Nwosu, I.A, Eteng, M.J, Ekpechu, .J, Nnam, .M.U, Ukah, J.A, Eyisi, .E & Orakwe, E.C, (2022), Poverty

and Youth Migration Out of Nigeria: Enthronement of Modern Slavery, SAGE Open, 1(3), 1–13.

16. Ogunniyi A., Olagunju K., Ogundipe A., Salman K., and Francis P. (2017). Scaling up agricultural

innovation for inclusive livelihood and productivity outcomes in subSaharan Africa: The case of Nigeria.

African Development Review, 29, 121–34.

17. Okafor, E. E. (2011). Youth unemployment and implications for stability of democracy in Nigeria.

Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(1), 358-373.

18. Okeke, I.C, (2021). Impact of International Remittances on Unemployment in Nigeria, Journal of

Economics and Sustainable Development, 12(1), 50-62.

19. Pryymachenko, Y. (2011). Emigration and Labour Market Outcomes in the CEE EU Member States: A

Closer Look.

20. Rapport, H., and Docquier, F. (2005) The Economics of migrants ‘remittances, IZA Discussion Paper,

1531, March.

21. Rufai, M., Ogunniyi, A., Salman, K. K., Oyeyemi, M., & Salawu, M. (2019). Migration, labor mobility

and household poverty in Nigeria: a gender analysis. Economies, 7(4), 101.

22. Young, A. (2013) Inequality, the rural–urban gap and migration. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 128,

1727–85.