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A New World on Another Planet: Human Settlement and
Architectural Design on Mars with Artificial Intelligence
Serdar KASAP
1*
, Gizem SERİ YEŞİL
2
1
Associate Professor, Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Türkiye
2
M.Sc. Architect, Philadelphia, United States
*
Corresponding Author
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150400015
Received: 22 March 2026; Accepted 27 March 2026; Published: 02 May 2026
ABSTRACT
Exploration of living possibilities on different planets, such as the Moon and Mars, has become one of the
primary focuses of current scientific and technological research. Humanity's quest to understand the universe,
combined with the desire to explore the limits of nature, encourages the development of new approaches that
could make life in space possible. In this context, a detailed examination of the physical and chemical
properties of planets, an analysis of atmospheric conditions, and the design of sustainable life support systems
are among the fundamental elements of these studies.
Space missions, continuously conducted since the 1950s, have deepened humanity's knowledge of the
universe, marking significant milestones in the exploration processes of this field. Initially limited to the
exploration of Earth's orbit and the goal of reaching the Moon, these endeavors have taken on a much more
comprehensive and sophisticated dimension with the rapid advancement of technology. Technological
developments in spacecraft and observation systems, the widespread use of artificial intelligence-supported
analytical methods, and increasing international cooperation have significantly accelerated progress in space
research, allowing for the collection of more detailed and comprehensive data about the depths of the universe.
Systematic research aimed at examining the conditions of space has led to large-scale innovations in the fields
of science and engineering.
In the context of expanding human habitation, Mars is predicted to be the next target. However, building a
sustainable living environment on Mars requires the coordinated and integrated efforts of many disciplines
beyond architecture, including engineering, biotechnology, material science, and others.
This article will evaluate possible life scenarios and living conditions on Mars in line with predictions of living
in space. It will also comprehensively analyze the architectural and engineering principles when designing
human settlements and sustainable living spaces on Mars.
Keywords: Space Architecture, life on Mars, sustainability in space, Mars Architecture
INTRODUCTION
Humanity's interest in space exploration has continued since the 1950s and has grown with contemporary
technological and scientific advancements. Organizing manned missions to Mars and establishing permanent
habitats are important in plans. The possibility of life on Mars has become one of the main topics of modern
space research, leading to a concentrated scientific focus on examining the planet as a potential settlement site.
Mars stands out as the first extraterrestrial location due to its potential to harbor many essential resources for
sustaining human life [1]. In this context, one of the primary objectives of human-crewed missions to Mars is
the comprehensive analysis of the planet's geophysical features and extreme environmental conditions. Such
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research is critical for assessing the possibilities of sustainable life on Mars and determining whether suitable
infrastructure for human habitation can be developed.
Robots that have conducted various research on Mars from the past to the present have provided valuable data
on the planet's surface conditions, atmospheric structure, and other natural features. Considering the success of
these robots over the years, it is anticipated that modern robotic technologies will play a supporting role in
future human missions to Mars. In this context, this study aims to analyze Mars' structural and environmental
conditions and propose architectural design principles for sustainable living spaces to be built there.
Land conditions, energy supply methods, the selection of building materials, and the development of structures
resistant to extreme environmental factors are among the key topics to be considered. The study analyzes the
architectural and engineering strategies necessary for designing sustainable structures on Mars that meet
human comfort and ergonomic needs over the long term. Various design approaches and evaluations regarding
construction techniques and material choices that could be integrated into the Martian surface are presented.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study adopts a qualitative and conceptual research methodology supported by a comprehensive literature
review and AI-assisted architectural design approaches. The research focuses on evaluating environmental
conditions on Mars and developing architectural strategies that respond to these extreme conditions.
In the first stage, existing scientific literature on Mars’ environmental characteristics, including temperature,
radiation, atmospheric structure, and material availability, was systematically reviewed. These environmental
parameters were identified as primary constraints influencing architectural design decisions.
In the second stage, architectural design criteria were established based on these constraints, with particular
emphasis on sustainability, structural durability, and human comfort.
In the third stage, AI-assisted design approaches, including parametric design, generative design, and data-
driven optimization methods, were conceptually integrated into the study. These approaches were used to
explore adaptive design solutions capable of responding to environmental variables.
Finally, a conceptual design framework and a hypothetical scenario were developed to demonstrate how AI-
based architectural strategies can be applied to Mars habitats. These proposals aim to provide a structured
approach for future research and practical applications in the field of space architecture.
Although this study does not include experimental or numerical simulation results, it presents a systematic and
interdisciplinary framework that contributes to the theoretical development of AI-assisted architectural design
in extraterrestrial environments.
Mars and Humanity's Vision: The Path to Space
The development of space exploration began in the mid-20th century and has progressed significantly with
advancements in science and technology. Milestones such as the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 and the first
human space missions marked the beginning of humanity’s exploration beyond Earth, expanding scientific
understanding of extraterrestrial environments.
Although the Moon remains the only celestial body where humans have physically landed, its lack of
atmosphere and extreme environmental conditions limit its suitability for long-term habitation. In contrast,
Mars has emerged as the most feasible candidate for human settlement due to its relatively similar gravity
conditions and the potential availability of essential resources such as water and minerals [2].
Although the Moon remains the only celestial body where humans have physically landed, its lack of
atmosphere and extreme environmental conditions limit its suitability for long-term habitation. In contrast,
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Mars has emerged as the most feasible candidate for human settlement due to its relatively similar gravity
conditions and the potential availability of essential resources such as water and minerals [2].
Recent robotic missions and scientific studies have provided detailed data on Mars’ surface conditions,
atmospheric structure, and resource potential. These findings play a critical role in identifying suitable landing
sites and developing strategies for sustainable human habitation. In parallel, technological advancements in
spacecraft systems, along with increasing international and private sector initiatives, have accelerated efforts
toward human-crewed missions to Mars [3].
In addition, private sector initiatives play a significant role in accelerating Mars exploration. For example, Elon
Musk, through SpaceX, has proposed long-term plans for establishing a human settlement on Mars,
emphasizing the importance of developing sustainable habitat systems for future missions [3].
Conditions on Mars and Comparison with Earth
Scientific studies define Mars as a terrestrial planet with environmental characteristics that differ significantly
from those of Earth. The planet is widely referred to as the “Red Planet” due to the presence of iron oxide on
its surface, which gives it a distinctive reddish appearance [4].
Scientific studies define Mars as a terrestrial planet with environmental characteristics that differ significantly
from those of Earth. The planet is widely referred to as the “Red Planet” due to the presence of iron oxide on
its surface, which gives it a distinctive reddish appearance [4].
Although Mars shares certain similarities with Earth, such as comparable day length and a solid planetary
structure, its environmental conditions are considerably more extreme. A Martian year lasts approximately 687
Earth days, while a day is slightly longer than that of Earth. These planetary characteristics influence surface
processes and environmental dynamics, which are critical for evaluating potential habitation scenarios.
In contrast to Earth, Mars exhibits low atmospheric pressure, limited water availability, and high radiation
exposure. These factors create a highly constrained environment for human life and represent fundamental
challenges for architectural design and settlement planning.
Fig. 1. Comparison of Earth and Mars [5].
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Water
On Mars, water exists primarily in solid or vapor phases due to low atmospheric pressure, which causes
sublimation. This limitation directly affects both life-support systems and construction processes. From an
architectural perspective, minimizing water usage in material production and habitat systems becomes
essential for sustainable design [6].
Compared to Earth, Mars represents an extremely arid environment, even drier than the Atacama Desert,
which further constrains water-dependent systems in long-term habitation scenarios [7].
Temperature
Mars exhibits extreme temperature conditions, with an average temperature of approximately -60°C and
fluctuations exceeding 100°C between day and night. These variations create significant challenges for
material durability and thermal regulation in architectural design [6].
Gravity
Mars’ gravity is approximately one-third of Earth’s, which has critical implications for both human physiology
and structural design. Reduced gravity affects long-term human health, including muscle and bone density
loss, while also influencing load distribution and structural behavior in built environments [8].
Radiation
Due to its thin atmosphere and lack of an ozone layer, Mars is exposed to high levels of solar and cosmic
radiation. This condition represents one of the most critical challenges for human habitation and necessitates
the integration of radiation-shielding strategies in architectural design [9][10].
Atmosphere
Mars has a low-density atmosphere composed mainly of carbon dioxide, with surface pressure less than 1% of
Earth’s. This condition requires pressurized habitat systems and significantly affects thermal stability, material
performance, and construction techniques [11][12].
Wind
Although Mars has a thin atmosphere, wind activity plays a significant role in shaping surface conditions.
Wind speeds can reach up to 100 km/h, transporting fine dust particles that contribute to erosion processes and
surface instability [13].
From an architectural perspective, wind-driven dust represents a critical challenge, as abrasive particles can
damage structural surfaces, reduce material durability, and affect mechanical systems. In addition, large-scale
dust storms may significantly reduce visibility and solar radiation levels, directly impacting energy systems
and operational efficiency.
Therefore, wind conditions on Mars necessitate the development of protective building envelopes, dust-
resistant materials, and adaptive design strategies to ensure long-term structural performance and habitability.
Regolith
Martian regolith, composed of fine dust and fragmented mineral particles, forms the primary surface layer of
the planet and represents a key resource for in-situ construction. Its widespread availability makes it a strategic
material for reducing dependence on Earth-based resources in long-term settlement scenarios [14] [15] [16].
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Martian regolith, composed of fine dust and fragmented mineral particles, forms the primary surface layer of
the planet and represents a key resource for in-situ construction. Its widespread availability makes it a strategic
material for reducing dependence on Earth-based resources in long-term settlement scenarios [14] [15] [16].
Structure Physics
The Martian surface has remained relatively stable over time, shaped by geological processes such as volcanic
activity and meteor impacts. This stability provides a potential foundation for long-term settlement; however,
the absence of water-based geomorphological processes presents unique challenges for site planning and
construction [2].
Table 1. Comparison of Mars and Earth Conditions and Characteristics [19][20]
Mars
Earth
Year Length
(The time it takes for the planet to
complete a full orbit around the Sun)
687 Earth days
65 Days
Day Length
(The time it takes for the planet to
complete a full rotation on its axis)
24 hours, 37 minutes
Just under 24 hours
Equatorial Radius
(The radius of the planet is measured
at the equator.)
3,397 kilometers
6,378 kilometers
Average Distance from the Sun
(The average distance between the
planet and the Sun)
227,936,637 kilometers
149,597,891 kilometers
Water
(Availability and presence of water on
the planet)
Traces found.
%79
Temperature
(General conditions of heat on the
planet)
-153°C / +20°C
(minimum/maximum)
or
-243°F / +68°F
(minimum/maximum)
-88°C / 58°C
(minimum/maximum)
or
-126°F / 136°F
(minimum/maximum)
Surface Temperature
(The average temperature measured
on the planet's surface)
63°C
or
145.4°F
14 °C
or
57.2 °F
Gravity
(The force of gravity on the planet
compared to Earth)
Approximately 37.5% of Earth's
gravity (3.71 m/s²)
Approximately 2.66 times that
of Mars
(9.81 m/s²)
Atmospheric Pressure
(A measure of the force that the
atmosphere of the planet exerts on its
surface)
7.5 millibars (average)
1.013 millibar
(Deniz seviyesinde)
Atmospheric Components
(The gases and other substances that
make up the planet's atmosphere)
Carbon dioxide (95.32%)
Nitrogen (2.7%)
Argon (1.6%)
Oxygen (0.13%)
Water vapor (0.03%)
Nitric oxide (0.01%)
Nitrogen (77%)
Oxygen (21%)
Argon (1%)
Carbon dioxide (0.038%)
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Survival Conditions and Challenges
Mars presents an extreme environment for human survival, characterized by conditions that differ significantly
from those on Earth. The planet’s thin atmosphere, extremely low oxygen levels, and absence of stable liquid
water create fundamental constraints for sustaining human life.
In addition to these limitations, low humidity and extreme temperature fluctuations pose serious risks to human
physiology, including dehydration and hypothermia. Fine dust particles, which are highly abrasive and
electrostatically charged, represent another critical challenge, as they can penetrate mechanical systems and
pose significant health risks when inhaled.
One of the most severe threats on Mars is exposure to high levels of solar and cosmic radiation due to the lack
of a protective atmosphere and ozone layer. Prolonged exposure to such radiation increases the risk of
radiation sickness and long-term health issues, including cancer [2].
From an architectural perspective, these environmental conditions necessitate the development of fully
enclosed, pressurized, and shielded habitats. Design strategies must integrate advanced life-support systems,
dust mitigation solutions, and radiation protection mechanisms to ensure safe and sustainable human habitation
on Mars.
Human Survival Strategies on Mars
Mars is not naturally habitable under its current environmental conditions. Factors such as low atmospheric
pressure, extreme temperature variations, and high radiation levels create critical challenges for sustaining
human life. Therefore, enabling human habitation on Mars requires the development of integrated and
technology-driven survival strategies.
These strategies must be based on the design of closed-loop life support systems capable of regulating air,
water, and food production. Water extraction from subsurface ice, atmospheric processing for oxygen
generation, and controlled agricultural systems are essential components of long-term survival. In addition,
habitat systems must be designed as fully enclosed and pressurized environments to maintain stable internal
conditions.
A key distinction exists between short-term missions and long-term settlement scenarios. While short-term
missions focus on maintaining basic survival conditions through pre-supplied resources, long-term habitation
requires self-sufficient systems that minimize dependency on Earth. This includes the integration of energy
production systems, resource recycling mechanisms, and modular construction strategies.
From an architectural perspective, these requirements necessitate the development of adaptive, resilient, and
scalable habitat systems. The integration of environmental control systems, structural protection, and resource-
efficient design approaches plays a critical role in ensuring sustainable human presence on Mars [21].
Architectural Approaches Supporting Human Life in Space
To date, no permanent human habitat has been established on Mars, and exploration has been limited to robotic
missions. Spacecraft such as Curiosity, InSight, Perseverance, and Zhurong have provided essential data on the
planet’s surface conditions, atmospheric composition, and resource availability. These findings form the
scientific foundation for the development of future habitation strategies.
The environmental conditions on Mars—including low atmospheric pressure, high radiation levels, and
extreme temperature variations—require fundamentally different architectural approaches compared to those
on Earth. Designing for Mars necessitates the integration of environmental control systems, structural
protection, and resource-efficient construction within a unified architectural framework.
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In this context, architectural design is not limited to spatial organization but evolves into a system-based
approach that combines material innovation, technological integration, and environmental adaptation. The
development of resilient, enclosed, and self-sufficient habitat systems is therefore essential for enabling
sustainable human presence on Mars.
Architectural and Settlement Planning Compatible with Mars Terrain
Human history has been shaped by exploration and the continuous search for new living environments. This
process, driven by the necessity of survival and development, has historically led humanity to expand beyond
existing geographical and environmental boundaries. Today, the depletion of Earth’s resources and increasing
ecological challenges have directed this search toward extraterrestrial environments, particularly Mars.
In this context, architectural design on Mars must focus on developing structures that are resilient to extreme
environmental conditions while ensuring sustainability and functionality. This includes the integration of life-
support systems, the efficient use of local materials, and the development of adaptive design strategies capable
of responding to environmental constraints [22].
The construction of permanent settlements on Mars requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates
architecture, engineering, and urban planning. Environmental factors such as reduced gravity, atmospheric
composition, radiation exposure, and the availability of local resources directly influence settlement design
strategies.
In this context, architectural design on Mars must focus on developing structures that are resilient to extreme
environmental conditions while ensuring sustainability and functionality. This includes the integration of life-
support systems, the efficient use of local materials, and the development of adaptive design strategies capable
of responding to environmental constraints [22].
Suitable Material Selection for Building Design on Mars
The selection of construction materials for Mars habitats is a critical factor due to the planet’s extreme
environmental conditions. Structures designed for long-term human habitation must ensure resistance to
radiation, withstand low atmospheric pressure, and adapt to significant temperature fluctuations. Therefore,
material selection must be evaluated not only in terms of structural safety but also with respect to performance,
durability, and environmental compatibility.
In this context, a dual-material strategy that combines Earth-based materials with locally available resources
offers a significant advantage in terms of cost efficiency and sustainability. Regolith, which is abundantly
available on the Martian surface, emerges as a primary material for construction, while locally sourced rock
materials can serve as supplementary structural components. The utilization of in-situ resources reduces
dependency on Earth-based supply chains and enhances the feasibility of long-term settlement projects.
Due to strict limitations in payload capacity for interplanetary transport, the selection of pre-tested, reliable,
and lightweight materials is essential. These constraints necessitate the development of modular construction
systems that can be efficiently transported and assembled on-site. Such systems not only optimize logistics but
also improve structural reliability under Martian conditions.
Furthermore, material selection can be enhanced through data-driven and computational approaches, where
environmental parameters and performance criteria are evaluated simultaneously. In this regard, integrating
advanced design methodologies allows for more efficient decision-making processes and contributes to the
development of adaptive and resilient construction systems.
Structural Materials Available from the Martian Surface
The use of locally available resources on Mars represents a fundamental strategy for achieving sustainable
construction processes. Due to the high cost and logistical limitations associated with transporting materials
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from Earth, in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) emerges as a critical approach in Martian construction.
In this context, materials derived from the Martian surface—primarily regolith and rock-based components—
can be processed and adapted for structural applications. These materials offer significant advantages in
reducing transportation dependency while enabling scalable construction processes.
In this context, materials derived from the Martian surface—primarily regolith and rock-based components—
can be processed and adapted for structural applications. These materials offer significant advantages in
reducing transportation dependency while enabling scalable construction processes.
Therefore, the effective use of local materials on Mars depends not only on their availability but also on the
development of appropriate processing technologies and construction methodologies that ensure structural
reliability and long-term performance.
Sulfur Concrete
The use of local resources in extraterrestrial construction, particularly under NASA’s In-Situ Resource
Utilization (ISRU) strategies, represents a key approach for sustainable building on Mars and the Moon.
Among these materials, sulfur concrete has emerged as a promising composite for structural applications due
to its compatibility with local resource availability [23].
Sulfur concrete can be produced by combining sulfur with heated aggregate, such as Martian regolith, allowing
on-site manufacturing through techniques like Contour Crafting (CC). This approach minimizes dependency
on Earth-based materials while enabling automated and scalable construction processes [24][25].
From a material science perspective, sulfur undergoes a phase transformation during cooling, transitioning
from monoclinic sulfur (Sβ) to a stable orthorhombic polymorph (Sα). This phase change significantly
enhances the mechanical stability and durability of the material, making it suitable for structural use under
Martian conditions [25].
In terms of performance, sulfur concrete offers several advantages, including rapid curing time, high
compressive strength, recyclability, and stability under low-temperature environments. These properties make
it particularly suitable for prefabricated or additively manufactured structural components in Mars habitats.
Furthermore, the abundance of sulfur on Mars and the favorable particle distribution of regolith contribute to
the feasibility of producing durable construction elements. Under the planet’s low atmospheric pressure and
extreme temperature conditions, sulfur-based materials demonstrate long-term stability, making them a viable
solution for load-bearing and protective structural systems [25].
Regolith
Regolith, which is abundantly available on the Martian surface, plays a critical role as a construction material
due to its capacity to provide natural protection against radiation, micrometeoroid impacts, and surface debris.
These properties make it particularly suitable for shielding applications in Martian habitats.
However, regolith exhibits significant structural limitations. Its brittle behavior, especially under high slope
angles, and its instability under dynamic loads restrict its direct use in load-bearing systems. The natural angle
of repose of loose regolith is approximately 40°, beyond which structural stability cannot be maintained.
Consequently, unprocessed regolith demonstrates limited performance in complex architectural applications.
To enhance its usability, regolith must undergo processing techniques such as compaction, molding, and
sintering. Sintering, performed using microwave or solar energy, enables the transformation of loose regolith
into solid construction elements such as bricks or blocks. These elements can be applied in a manner similar to
masonry systems on Earth and can function within pressurized environments when combined with appropriate
reinforcement and connection strategies.
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Despite these advancements, the material’s mechanical performance remains limited. Experimental studies
indicate that the tensile strength of sintered regolith ranges between 9–18 MPa, with comparable compressive
strength values. The relatively low strength and heterogeneous structure of regolith restrict its use in advanced
structural systems such as beams or large-span elements.
Therefore, regolith is more suitable for non-critical structural applications, including external shells, protective
layers, and radiation shielding systems. In this context, it serves as a complementary material rather than a
primary load-bearing component in Mars habitat design [26].
Structural Materials Obtainable from Earth Resources
In addition to locally available resources, materials transported from Earth play a critical role in the initial
phases of Mars construction. These materials have been extensively tested in space missions and are known for
their reliability under extreme environmental conditions, making them suitable for early-stage habitat
development.
In addition to locally available resources, materials transported from Earth play a critical role in the initial
phases of Mars construction. These materials have been extensively tested in space missions and are known for
their reliability under extreme environmental conditions, making them suitable for early-stage habitat
development.
Structural materials such as steel, aluminum, titanium, and advanced composite materials are commonly used
in aerospace engineering due to their high strength-to-weight ratios, durability, and resistance to thermal and
mechanical stresses. These properties make them particularly suitable for use in pressurized structural systems,
modular habitat units, and critical load-bearing components.
In this context, Earth-sourced materials are most effectively utilized within hybrid construction systems, where
they are combined with locally produced materials such as regolith-based elements. This approach enhances
structural performance while maintaining logistical and economic feasibility in Mars habitat construction.
Steel
Steel is widely used as a structural material due to its high strength, durability, and adaptability through various
processing techniques. Its mechanical properties, including high load-bearing capacity and resistance to
thermal and mechanical stresses, make it a reliable material for structural applications.
In the context of Mars construction, steel can play a critical role in primary load-bearing systems, connection
elements, and pressurized structural components where high strength and reliability are required. Its
performance under extreme conditions makes it suitable for use in modular habitat frameworks and
reinforcement systems.
However, the high density of steel presents a significant disadvantage in terms of transportation from Earth,
leading to increased launch costs and logistical limitations. For this reason, its use in Mars construction is
expected to be limited to essential structural components that require high mechanical performance.
Therefore, steel is best utilized as part of hybrid construction systems, where it is combined with locally
produced materials to optimize both structural performance and resource efficiency [27].
Aluminum
Aluminum is a lightweight and versatile material widely used in aerospace engineering due to its high
strength-to-weight ratio and ease of fabrication. Its ability to maintain mechanical performance at low
temperatures while preserving ductility makes it particularly suitable for use in extreme environments.
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In the context of Mars, aluminum offers significant advantages for structural and non-structural components,
especially in modular systems and lightweight assemblies. Its reduced density compared to steel minimizes
transportation costs and supports efficient deployment in early-stage construction.
Additionally, aluminum’s compatibility with various joining techniques enables the development of
prefabricated and modular habitat systems. These characteristics make it a suitable material for interior
structural elements, enclosure systems, and secondary load-bearing components in Mars habitats.
However, the reduction in mechanical strength at elevated temperatures must be considered in design
processes. Despite this limitation, aluminum remains a viable and efficient material for Mars construction due
to its balance between weight, strength, and adaptability [26].
Titanium
Titanium is a high-performance material known for its exceptional strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion
resistance. Being significantly lighter than steel while maintaining high structural strength, it is widely used in
aerospace and space engineering applications where weight efficiency is critical.
In the context of Mars construction, titanium offers significant advantages for critical structural components,
particularly in pressurized systems, connection elements, and high-performance structural joints. Its resistance
to extreme environmental conditions, including temperature variations and potential chemical interactions,
enhances its suitability for long-term space applications.
However, the production and processing of titanium are complex and costly, which limits its widespread use.
For this reason, its application in Mars habitats is expected to be restricted to specialized components where
high performance and reliability are essential.
Considering transportation constraints, titanium’s low density provides an advantage over heavier materials
such as steel, making it a strategic material for use in hybrid construction systems on Mars [26].
Glass
Glass is a critical material in space architecture due to its superior optical properties and resistance to
environmental degradation compared to alternative transparent materials such as plastics. In space
environments, glass demonstrates high resistance to atomic oxygen, whereas most plastics rapidly degrade,
become opaque, and lose structural integrity under ultraviolet radiation exposure.
In the context of Mars, glass plays a vital role in maintaining visual connection with the external environment
while ensuring protection against harsh atmospheric conditions. It is primarily used in window systems,
observation panels, and controlled daylight openings within pressurized habitats.
However, glass exhibits several structural limitations, including brittleness, sensitivity to static fatigue, and
vulnerability to impact damage. These properties pose significant risks in the Martian environment, where
micrometeoroid impacts and pressure differentials are critical design concerns.
To overcome these limitations, multi-layered glazing systems are required. Similar to the International Space
Station (ISS), protective outer and inner layers can be integrated with pressure-resistant glass, separated by
buffer zones to absorb external impacts. Additional design solutions, such as integrated heating systems, can
prevent condensation and maintain visual clarity under extreme temperature conditions [28].
Despite its structural challenges and transportation limitations, glass contributes significantly to the
psychological well-being of astronauts by providing natural light and visual access to the external
environment. This aspect is particularly important for long-term missions, as it enhances spatial perception,
reduces isolation, and improves overall quality of life within confined habitats.
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Membrane
Membrane materials, including architectural fabrics and polymer-based foils, are considered advanced
construction materials due to their lightweight nature, flexibility, and high strength-to-weight ratio. These
properties make them particularly suitable for applications where minimizing structural mass is critical, such
as space architecture.
In the context of Mars, membrane systems are highly advantageous as external envelopes for habitats,
especially in inflatable or expandable structural systems. Their low weight significantly reduces transportation
costs, while their flexibility allows compact deployment and rapid assembly on the Martian surface.
However, membrane materials exhibit limited تمواقم to bending and compression, requiring them to function
primarily under tensile forces. Therefore, their structural performance depends heavily on proper form-finding
processes, internal pressurization, and controlled stress distribution. These design parameters are critical for
ensuring stability and safety in pressurized Martian environments.
Membrane systems can be enhanced through multi-layered configurations combined with local materials such
as regolith. This hybrid approach improves resistance against radiation, thermal fluctuations, and
micrometeoroid impacts. High-performance fibers such as aramid (Kevlar), polyamide, and advanced
polymers are commonly used due to their high strength and durability.
Additionally, coating materials such as PTFE and PVC contribute to environmental resistance and structural
protection. The layered composition of membrane systems allows them to meet insulation, safety, and
durability requirements simultaneously, making them a promising solution for long-term Mars habitat design
[26].
Plastics or Plastic-Based Materials
Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs), as a type of composite material, consist of reinforcement fibers embedded
within a polymer matrix, resulting in improved mechanical performance compared to conventional materials.
These materials offer high strength-to-weight ratios, making them particularly suitable for applications where
reducing structural mass is essential.
In the context of Mars construction, plastic-based composite materials provide significant advantages due to
their lightweight nature, durability, and resistance to environmental degradation. Compared to metallic
materials, composites can achieve similar or superior performance while minimizing transportation costs and
simplifying construction processes.
Advanced material technologies, such as carbon nanotubes, further enhance the potential of plastic-based
systems. Due to their exceptional strength and extremely low weight, carbon nanotube-reinforced composites
enable the development of high-performance structural elements that were previously not feasible with
traditional materials [26].
In architectural applications on Mars, plastic-based materials can be used in modular components, interior
structural systems, insulation layers, and secondary load-bearing elements. Their adaptability and ease of
fabrication support prefabrication and rapid assembly processes, which are critical for extraterrestrial
construction.
Overall, plastic-based composite materials represent a highly efficient solution for Mars habitats, offering a
balance between structural performance, lightweight construction, and adaptability to extreme environmental
conditions [26].
Structural Models and Typologies for Mars Habitats
One of the primary challenges in Martian architecture is the design of safe pressurized structures, due to the
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extremely low atmospheric pressure on Mars, which is approximately 1% of that on Earth. This condition
creates structural risks similar to those observed in high-altitude pressurized systems and requires advanced
engineering solutions to ensure stability and safety.
The reduced gravity on Mars, approximately one-third of Earth's, allows for lighter structural systems.
However, internal pressurization forces remain a dominant design factor. For this reason, geometries such as
domes and curved shells are frequently preferred, as they efficiently distribute internal pressure and enhance
structural stability.
Current research highlights three primary structural typologies for Mars habitats: rigid structures, inflatable
systems, and hybrid configurations. Rigid metal structures provide high reliability and durability, particularly
for critical modules such as life-support systems and technical infrastructure. In contrast, inflatable and
telescopic systems offer significant advantages in terms of volume-to-mass efficiency, compact transportation,
and rapid deployment.
Despite these advantages, inflatable structures present vulnerabilities, particularly against micrometeoroid
impacts, due to the lack of atmospheric protection on Mars. Therefore, hybrid solutions that combine inflatable
systems with protective outer layers, such as regolith shielding or multi-layered membranes, are considered
more effective for long-term applications.
In addition to structural performance, the psychological impact of habitat design remains a critical but
underexplored factor. The spatial configuration, enclosure type, and material expression of habitats may
significantly influence the well-being of astronauts during long-duration missions.
Consequently, the selection of structural typologies for Mars habitats must balance multiple criteria, including
structural safety, material efficiency, environmental protection, and human comfort. In this context, hybrid
systems integrating rigid, inflatable, and locally reinforced structures are considered the most viable solution
for sustainable Mars settlements [30].
Regolith and Stone-Based Construction Systems
Regolith-based construction systems exhibit structural similarities to earthen architecture on Earth, where load-
bearing capacity is primarily achieved through compressive strength. Due to the brittle nature of regolith,
structural designs must avoid tensile stresses and instead rely on geometries that efficiently transfer loads in
compression.
In this context, forms such as domes, arches, and freeform shell structures—particularly inverted catenary
geometries—are considered optimal for Martian construction. These geometries enable uniform load
distribution and enhance structural stability under pressurized conditions, making them highly suitable for
Mars habitats [6].
Construction using regolith can be achieved through methods such as block production, compaction, and
layering techniques. However, the most promising approach is on-site manufacturing through additive
construction technologies. 3D printing systems enable the direct use of local materials, significantly reducing
dependency on Earth-based resources and minimizing transportation costs.
These systems are expected to operate using autonomous or semi-autonomous robotic technologies, allowing
construction processes to be carried out with minimal human intervention. Such approaches provide substantial
advantages in terms of efficiency, scalability, and operational safety in the Martian environment.
In this context, sintering techniques—applied through microwave or solar energy—play a critical role in
transforming loose regolith into structurally stable building components. By heating the material below its
melting point, particle bonding is achieved, reducing porosity and increasing mechanical performance [31].
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Overall, regolith-based construction systems represent a fundamental strategy for sustainable Mars
architecture, combining local material utilization, optimized structural geometry, and advanced manufacturing
technologies.
Expandable Structural Systems
Expandable structures are architectural systems capable of changing their volume through mechanisms such as
folding, inflation, or shape-memory configurations. These systems offer a significant advantage in space
applications due to their ability to be transported in a compact form and deployed into larger volumes after
installation.
In the context of Mars, expandable structures provide critical benefits in terms of transportation efficiency,
rapid deployment, and spatial flexibility. Their low mass-to-volume ratio makes them particularly suitable for
early-stage habitat construction, where minimizing payload is essential.
Structurally, these systems consist of modular components such as rigid frames, articulated joints, and flexible
membranes. Once deployed, internal pressurization and geometric stabilization enhance their load-bearing
capacity and structural integrity. This allows expandable systems to function as reliable enclosures for
pressurized environments.
Expandable structures are especially suitable for functions such as living spaces, laboratories, greenhouses, and
temporary operational modules. Their adaptability enables flexible spatial organization and phased expansion
of settlements over time.
However, their vulnerability to external factors such as micrometeoroid impacts and material fatigue requires
additional protective strategies. These may include multi-layered membrane systems or integration with
regolith-based shielding.
Overall, expandable structural systems represent a key architectural strategy for Mars habitats, offering a
balance between transport efficiency, spatial adaptability, and construction feasibility [2].
Metal and Plastic-Based Structural Systems
Metal and composite-based structural systems play a critical role in the development of reliable and adaptable
habitats on Mars. Unlike material-focused approaches, these systems emphasize the integration of structural
components to achieve optimal performance under extreme environmental conditions.
Metal-based systems, particularly those utilizing aluminum and titanium alloys, are widely used in space
applications due to their high reliability and predictable mechanical behavior. These systems are especially
suitable for primary load-bearing structures, connection nodes, and pressure-resistant modules where structural
safety is critical.
However, due to transportation constraints and high material weight, metal-based systems alone are not
sufficient for large-scale construction on Mars. In this context, composite-based structural systems offer a more
efficient alternative. Their lightweight nature, combined with high strength and adaptability, enables the
development of modular and prefabricated structural elements.
Composite systems are particularly advantageous for secondary structural components, internal frameworks,
and adaptable enclosure systems. Their flexibility allows integration with membrane systems and expandable
structures, supporting hybrid architectural solutions.
Additionally, future scenarios suggest that both metal and composite materials may be partially produced on
Mars using in-situ resource utilization strategies. However, current technological limitations indicate that high-
performance material production remains a significant challenge.
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Therefore, hybrid structural systems combining metal and composite components are considered the most
effective solution, balancing structural reliability, material efficiency, and construction feasibility in Martian
environments [2] [33].
Modular Structural Systems
Modular structural systems represent one of the most effective architectural strategies for establishing
adaptable and scalable habitats on Mars. These systems are based on the assembly of prefabricated units, each
designed to perform specific functions such as habitation, research, life support, or storage.
In the context of Mars, modularity provides significant advantages in terms of transportation, construction
efficiency, and long-term adaptability. Due to launch constraints, transporting smaller, standardized modules is
more feasible than constructing large monolithic structures. Once deployed on the Martian surface, these
modules can be assembled incrementally, allowing settlements to grow over time.
Structurally, modular systems often utilize cylindrical or geometrically optimized forms that can efficiently
resist internal pressurization. Connection interfaces between modules are designed to ensure airtight sealing,
structural continuity, and functional integration.
One of the key advantages of modular systems is their flexibility. Damaged or outdated modules can be
replaced or upgraded without affecting the entire settlement. Additionally, modular configurations support
reconfigurable spatial layouts, enabling adaptation to changing mission requirements or environmental
conditions.
Future Mars habitats are expected to integrate modular systems with other structural approaches such as
expandable structures, regolith-based shells, and composite frameworks. This hybridization enhances both
structural performance and operational efficiency.
Therefore, modular structural systems provide a robust and flexible foundation for the phased development of
sustainable human settlements on Mars [34].
Drilled Structural Systems in Underground Areas
Drilled structural systems represent a critical architectural strategy for protecting human habitats from extreme
environmental conditions on Mars. Rather than focusing solely on surface construction, these systems utilize
subsurface excavation to create naturally shielded living spaces.
On Mars, underground environments offer significant advantages in terms of radiation protection, thermal
stability, and resistance to external hazards such as micrometeoroid impacts and dust storms. Excavation
processes are expected to be carried out using autonomous or semi-autonomous robotic systems adapted from
terrestrial drilling and mining technologies [35].
From a structural perspective, the excavation of rock masses alters the internal stress distribution, enabling the
formation of self-supporting geometries under suitable conditions. In particular, basalt formations on Mars
have the potential to form stable arch-like structures, reducing the need for additional structural reinforcement.
However, in cases where geological stability is insufficient, engineered support systems must be introduced.
These systems typically consist of a primary support layer that stabilizes the surrounding rock and an internal
structural shell that ensures airtightness and habitability. Intermediate layers, such as air gaps or insulating
materials, can be incorporated to improve thermal performance and structural safety.
Underground habitats can be constructed using a combination of locally sourced materials, such as regolith-
based concrete, and transported structural components. The integration of robotic construction technologies
further enhances the feasibility of these systems.
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Overall, drilled underground structural systems provide one of the most effective solutions for long-term
human habitation on Mars by combining environmental protection, structural efficiency, and spatial continuity
[2] [35].
Interior Layouts and Design Approaches in Mars Structures
Interior design in Mars habitats presents unique challenges due to the necessity of integrating pressurized
environments with non-conventional architectural forms. Unlike traditional Earth-based structures, which are
typically designed with orthogonal geometries for ease of construction, Mars habitats are often shaped by
structural and environmental constraints, leading to curved or shell-based forms.
One of the primary design challenges is the relationship between the exterior structural form and the interior
spatial organization. To address this, several design strategies have been proposed. The first approach involves
designing interior spaces independently from the outer shell, allowing the external form to remain structurally
optimized while maintaining conventional interior layouts. The second approach integrates the interior
structure with the external geometry, adapting internal frameworks to curved surfaces and creating a more
cohesive architectural system. The third approach prioritizes spatial continuity by minimizing internal
subdivisions, resulting in larger, open interior volumes that enhance flexibility.
Each of these approaches offers specific advantages and limitations. Independent interior systems provide
familiarity and ease of use but may reduce spatial efficiency. Integrated systems maximize structural coherence
but introduce complexity in construction and furnishing. Open-plan configurations improve flexibility and
visual continuity but may create challenges in functional zoning and privacy.
In the context of Mars, interior design must also respond to additional factors such as limited space,
psychological well-being, long-term habitation, and the need for efficient circulation. The absence of natural
environmental stimuli requires carefully designed interior environments that support human comfort and
mental health.
Therefore, successful interior design solutions for Mars habitats must balance structural constraints, functional
requirements, and human-centered design principles. Future developments are expected to integrate adaptive
and flexible interior systems that can evolve alongside the growth of Martian settlements [36].
Ai-Assisted Architectural Design Approaches in Possible Life Scenarios on Mars
The design and construction of habitats on Mars require approaches that go beyond conventional architectural
methods due to the planet’s extreme environmental conditions. In this context, artificial intelligence (AI)
emerges as a critical tool for developing adaptive, data-driven, and optimized architectural solutions.
AI-assisted architectural design on Mars is primarily based on parametric and generative design
methodologies. These systems utilize environmental input data—such as solar radiation, temperature
fluctuations, wind patterns, and radiation exposure—to generate and evaluate multiple design alternatives.
Through iterative optimization processes, AI algorithms can identify configurations that maximize structural
performance, energy efficiency, and environmental resilience.
In this framework, machine learning models can be trained using datasets derived from planetary simulations
and previous space missions. These models enable predictive analysis, allowing designers to assess how
architectural forms and materials will perform under Martian conditions. For instance, AI can simulate the
thermal behavior of structures, optimize material distribution, and determine the most efficient structural
geometries for pressurized habitats.
Furthermore, AI plays a significant role in construction processes through the integration of robotic systems.
Autonomous construction technologies, such as AI-driven 3D printing systems, allow the use of local materials
(e.g., regolith) to fabricate building components directly on-site. These systems reduce dependency on Earth-
based resources and enhance construction efficiency in remote environments.
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AI-based decision-making systems also support resource management strategies, including energy
optimization, water recycling, and environmental control. By continuously analyzing real-time data, these
systems can dynamically adjust habitat conditions to ensure long-term sustainability and human comfort.
In this context, AI is not only a design tool but also an integral component of the entire architectural lifecycle,
from conceptual design to construction and operation. Therefore, AI-assisted architectural approaches
represent a fundamental paradigm for enabling sustainable human life on Mars.
Definition of AI: Its Role as a Technology in Mars Designs
Artificial intelligence (AI) can be defined as a computational system capable of processing data, learning from
patterns, and generating optimized decisions toward specific objectives. Rather than focusing on historical
definitions, AI in architectural design is understood as a data-driven methodology that enables adaptive and
performance-based solutions.
In the context of Mars, AI functions as a critical design and decision-making tool that integrates environmental
data into the architectural process. Through parametric modeling and generative algorithms, AI systems can
analyze variables such as radiation levels, temperature fluctuations, atmospheric pressure, and solar exposure
to generate optimized architectural configurations.
These systems operate through iterative processes in which multiple design alternatives are evaluated
simultaneously. Optimization algorithms identify the most efficient solutions in terms of structural
performance, energy efficiency, and environmental resilience. This approach allows the development of
architecture that is not only responsive but also predictive.
In addition to design processes, AI contributes to construction and operational phases. AI-integrated robotic
systems, particularly those based on additive manufacturing (3D printing), enable the autonomous construction
of structures using local materials such as regolith. This reduces reliance on Earth-based resources and
enhances construction feasibility in remote environments.
Furthermore, AI-based control systems support real-time environmental management, including air quality
regulation, thermal control, and resource optimization. By continuously adapting to changing conditions, these
systems ensure the long-term sustainability and habitability of Mars settlements.
In this framework, AI is not merely a supportive technology but a central component that connects design,
construction, and operation processes. Therefore, its role in Mars-oriented architectural design represents a
fundamental shift toward data-driven and adaptive architectural systems [36][38].
Mars Design Experiments with AI
AI-based design experiments for Mars habitats are conducted through parametric modeling, generative
algorithms, and simulation-based approaches. These methods enable the evaluation of architectural solutions
under extreme environmental conditions while optimizing structural performance, energy efficiency, and
spatial organization.
In this context, AI systems process environmental data such as solar radiation, temperature variations, and
atmospheric conditions to generate multiple design alternatives. These alternatives are assessed through
iterative optimization processes, allowing the identification of the most suitable configurations for sustainable
habitation on Mars.
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Fig. 2. AI-generated conceptual Mars architectural structures [41].
Fig. 3. Conceptual sustainable Mars colony model based on AI-assisted design [42].
As illustrated in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, AI-generated conceptual models demonstrate how adaptive, modular, and
environmentally responsive settlement configurations can be developed through generative design approaches.
These models highlight the integration of renewable energy systems, dome-based geometries, and modular
spatial organization strategies.
Additionally, dome-shaped structural solutions, as shown in Fig. 5, offer efficient resistance to internal
pressure and environmental loads, making them a preferred architectural form for Mars habitats. Biomimetic
design approaches, illustrated in Fig. 4, further contribute to the development of structurally efficient and
environmentally adaptive architectural systems inspired by natural formations.
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Fig. 4. Conceptual biomimetic Mars settlement model [39].
Fig. 5. Dome-shaped Mars habitat concept [40].
These AI-assisted design experiments not only support aesthetic and functional requirements but also provide a
data-driven framework for sustainable and resilient habitat development. In this sense, AI acts as a bridge
between environmental constraints and architectural solutions, playing a fundamental role in shaping future
Mars settlement scenarios.
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CONCLUSION
Space research, which began in the mid-20th century, has evolved into a highly advanced and interdisciplinary
field with the rapid development of technology. In particular, robotic exploration systems have provided
extensive data on planetary environments, enabling detailed analysis of surface conditions, atmospheric
structures, and potential resource availability.
This study has examined Mars as a potential environment for human habitation by analyzing its environmental
conditions, including surface characteristics, atmospheric structure, and climatic factors. Based on these
analyses, key architectural parameters such as structural systems, material selection, and spatial organization
strategies have been evaluated.
One of the primary contributions of this study is the integration of architectural design approaches with
environmental constraints specific to Mars. In this context, regolith-based construction systems, modular and
expandable structures, underground habitats, and adaptive interior design strategies have been discussed as
potential solutions for sustainable settlement development.
Furthermore, the study highlights the critical role of artificial intelligence in Mars-oriented architectural
design. AI-assisted methodologies, including parametric modeling, generative design, and simulation-based
optimization, provide a data-driven framework for developing adaptive and resilient architectural solutions.
These approaches enable the efficient use of local resources, support autonomous construction processes, and
enhance long-term sustainability.
The findings of this study suggest that the combination of advanced structural systems and AI-supported
design strategies has the potential to significantly improve the feasibility of human settlements on Mars. As
technological developments continue, such integrated approaches will play a decisive role in transforming
conceptual Mars habitats into practical and implementable solutions.
In conclusion, this study contributes to the field of space architecture by providing a comprehensive and
interdisciplinary framework that connects environmental analysis, architectural design, and technological
innovation. This framework is expected to support future research and guide the development of sustainable
human settlements on Mars.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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