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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue IV, April 2026
Adaptive Landscape Design: Evaluation of Flexibility of Outdoor
Spaces That Respond to Climate Change in Caleb University
Ademakinwa, Olasunmbo
Caleb University
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150400074
Received: 11 April 2026; Accepted: 16 April 2026; Published: 09 May 2026
ABSTRACT
There is substantial scientific evidence that global climate change is intensifying environmental challenges,
particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria, where rising temperatures, extreme rainfall, and heat stress
increasingly affect the usability of outdoor environments. Despite growing discourse on sustainable design, a
research gap remains in evaluating the flexibility and responsiveness of campus outdoor spaces to climate
variability, especially within private university settings. This study aims to assess adaptive landscape design
strategies by evaluating the flexibility of outdoor spaces in responding to climate change, using Caleb University
as a case study. The objectives are to examine the current performance of outdoor spaces under changing climatic
conditions, identify design limitations affecting user comfort and interaction, and propose adaptive landscape
interventions that enhance resilience and usability. The study adopts a quantitative research methodology,
utilizing structured online survey questionnaires administered to students, teaching staff, non-teaching staff, and
visitors, with findings analyzed to determine the level of adaptability and inform climate-responsive landscape
planning strategies.
Keywords: Adaptive landscape design, Climate change, Caleb University, Outdoor spaces.
INTRODUCTION
Global climate change has become one of the most pressing environmental challenges of the 21st century (IPCC,
2021). Scientific evidence shows increasing temperatures, irregular rainfall patterns, flooding, prolonged heat
waves, and other extreme weather events, particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria (IPCC, 2021;
Nigerian Meteorological Agency [NiMet], 2023). These climatic shifts significantly affect the performance,
usability, and comfort of outdoor environments, especially in institutional settings where outdoor spaces serve
academic, social, recreational, and circulation purposes (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP],
2022; Okafor et al., 2024). University campuses rely heavily on outdoor spaces to promote learning beyond
classrooms, encourage social interaction, enhance well-being, and create a sense of place (Kiribou et al., 2024;
United Nations, 2023). However, many campuses were not originally designed with climate adaptability in mind
(UNEP, 2022). As climate variability intensifies, poorly shaded walkways, inadequate drainage systems, heat-
absorbing hardscapes, and insufficient green infrastructure reduce user comfort and limit outdoor space
functionality (Agboola & Arapoglu, 2024; Ojobo & Nimlyat, 2024).
In private universities such as Caleb University, outdoor spaces play a critical role in shaping student experience
and campus identity, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions of southwestern Nigeria. However, there is
limited empirical research evaluating how flexible and responsive these spaces are to climate change within
private university settings in Nigeria (Okafor et al., 2024). While sustainable design discourse continues to
expand globally (United Nations, 2023), a gap remains in assessing the actual adaptability of campus landscapes
in the Nigerian context. Furthermore, research on institutional environments has shown that physical conditions,
including outdoor spaces, significantly influence user performance and well-being (Ademakinwa et al., 2024).
Adaptive landscape design offers a strategic approach to addressing these challenges. It emphasizes flexibility,
resilience, and climate-responsive planning through strategies such as shading systems, permeable surfaces,
stormwater management, vegetation integration, and multifunctional open spaces (Ahern, 2021; Kiribou et al.,
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2024). Evaluating the flexibility of outdoor spaces in Caleb University is therefore necessary to determine their
capacity to respond effectively to climate stressors while maintaining usability and social interaction.
Aim
To evaluate the flexibility of outdoor spaces in responding to climate change through adaptive landscape design
strategies, using Caleb University as a case study.
Objectives
1. To examine the current performance of outdoor spaces in Caleb University under changing climatic
conditions.
2. To assess the level of environmental comfort and usability of these outdoor spaces during extreme
weather conditions.
3. To identify design limitations affecting user interaction, flexibility, and climate responsiveness.
4. To evaluate the degree of adaptability of existing landscape elements and spatial configurations.
5. To propose adaptive landscape design interventions that enhance resilience, usability, and climate
responsiveness within the university campus.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Scientific consensus on climate change is unequivocal. The IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report (2021) declared
that climate change is "widespread, rapid, and intensifying," with tropical regions facing amplified heatwaves,
heavier extreme rainfall, and urban heat islands that can add 2–6 °C to local temperatures. In cities and
settlements, these changes compound risks: more frequent flooding, prolonged heat stress, and reduced usability
of outdoor environments (IPCC, 2022). A recent review of tropical urban heat islands confirms that UHI intensity
in tropical cities frequently reaches 6 °C, double that of many temperate zones, making vegetation-based cooling
essential for human comfort and health (Lefèvre et al., 2024).
Adaptive landscape design responds directly to these realities. It treats outdoor spaces as dynamic, living systems
rather than fixed scenery. Core principles include nature-based solutions (NBS): shaded microclimates,
bioswales and rain gardens for stormwater management, drought-tolerant native planting, and modular layouts
that serve multiple seasonal functions. Recent global frameworks (White House, 2022; California NBS Climate
Targets, 2024) show that well-designed NBS deliver multiple benefits—cooling, flood control, biodiversity,
carbon sequestration, and improved mental well-being—often at lower long-term cost than grey infrastructure
alone. Building energy performance simulation studies have also demonstrated that climate-responsive design
strategies, including appropriate landscaping, can significantly reduce environmental stress on built
environments (Oladigbolu et al., 2021).
Campus landscapes are ideal testing grounds for these principles. Leading institutions worldwide have moved
from aspiration to action. UCLA's Place + Community + Ecology: A Climate Adaptive Landscape Plan
integrates historic ecology with contemporary microclimates to create resilient, multifunctional outdoor spaces.
Harvard Graduate School of Design's ongoing work on climate-responsive landscapes emphasizes slowing
rainwater, treating flooding as a design feature, and storing water for reuse (Harvard Magazine, 2023).
In Africa and Nigeria, the urgency is even greater. Research indicates that over 60% of Africans depend on
climate-sensitive agriculture, and West Africa (including Nigeria) faces some of the continent's highest
vulnerability indices (Ayomipe & Epie, 2024). Erratic rainfall, droughts, floods, and rising temperatures are
already reducing staple crop yields and intensifying urban flooding. Yet promising local adaptation is emerging.
In northern Nigeria's semi-arid zones, communities traditionally adapt open spaces through indigenous
knowledge: tree planting for shade, water harvesting, and flexible use of public grounds. The Global Centre on
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Adaptation (2024) reports that targeted NBS investments across Africa could avert billions in losses, with
benefit-cost ratios reaching 8:1 when implemented at the landscape scale.
Despite this momentum, a critical research gap persists, particularly for existing outdoor spaces on private
university campuses in Nigeria. While new "green campus" projects and public university masterplans have
received attention, few studies rigorously evaluate how current campus landscapes perform under real climatic
stress. Even fewer examine user experiences across diverse groups: students, staff, and visitors. Private
institutions like Caleb University face distinctive constraints—rapid enrolment growth, modest budgets, and
location-specific challenges in the Lagos hinterland—that are rarely addressed in existing literature. This study,
therefore, fills a timely void. By assessing the flexibility of outdoor spaces at Caleb University through
quantitative surveys and performance analysis, it moves beyond generic sustainability rhetoric. It identifies
specific design limitations affecting thermal comfort, social interaction, and safety during heatwaves and heavy
rains. Most importantly, it translates global best practices and African innovation into practical, climate-
responsive interventions—shaded canopy networks, permeable surfaces, native biodiversity corridors, and
seasonal flexible zones—that can be implemented within realistic institutional budgets. The evidence is clear:
climate change will not wait, but neither will adaptive landscape design. Campuses that embrace flexibility today
will become vibrant, resilient, living laboratories for Nigeria and the Global South.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study employed a quantitative survey design using a structured questionnaire to evaluate the environmental
comfort, usability, and climate responsiveness of outdoor spaces at Caleb University. The survey method was
adopted because it enables systematic data collection from a large population and allows for statistical analysis
of users' perceptions and experiences. This approach made it possible to examine outdoor space usage patterns,
perceived thermal comfort during extreme weather conditions, availability of climate-responsive landscape
features, and users' satisfaction with the flexibility and adaptability of campus outdoor spaces.
The study was conducted at Caleb University, Imota, Lagos State. The campus contains diverse outdoor
environments such as lawns, courtyards, gardens, sports areas, and landscaped walkways used for recreation,
social interaction, circulation, and informal learning. Considering Lagos' climate challenges—heat waves, heavy
rainfall, flooding, and seasonal drought—the campus provides a suitable setting to evaluate how outdoor spaces
adapt to changing environmental conditions. The variety of landscape types and frequent daily user interaction
make the campus an appropriate environment for assessing the flexibility, usability, and climate-responsive
performance of adaptive landscape design. The target population comprised students, academic staff, and non-
academic staff who regularly use outdoor spaces within the university. Due to accessibility and participants'
willingness to respond, a convenience sampling technique was employed for questionnaire distribution.
Structured questionnaires were administered primarily to students across different levels of study, and a total of
200 valid responses were collected and used for analysis. Although the sampling method is non-probabilistic,
the relatively large sample size improves the reliability and generalizability of the findings within the context of
campus-based perception studies.
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents and analyses the data obtained from the questionnaire survey conducted to evaluate the
flexibility of outdoor spaces in responding to climate change at Caleb University. A total of 200 valid
responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics based on mean score ranking. The results are presented
according to the major research variables: outdoor space usage, thermal comfort, climate-responsive landscape
features, and user satisfaction.
Table 4.1: Demographic Distribution
Demographic Variable
Category
Number
Percentage (%)
Gender
Female
105
52.5%
Male
95
47.5%
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Age
15-20 years
54
27%
21-25 years
67
33.5%
26-30 years
28
19.5%
31 years and above
41
20.5%
Status in Caleb University
Student
129
64.5%
Staff
47
23.5%
Visitor
24
12%
How often do you use outdoor spaces on campus?
Daily
47
23.5%
Several times a week
44
22%
Occasionally
57
28.5%
Rarely
52
26%
Which outdoor spaces do you use most?
Courtyards
31
15.5%
Walkways
56
28%
Recreational fields
49
24.5%
Seating areas
31
15.5%
Gardens / green area
33
16.5%
Table 4.2: Current Performance of Outdoor Spaces under Changing Climate
Statement
Strongly
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Mean
SD
Outdoor spaces in Caleb
University perform well during
hot weather.
33 (16.5%)
44 (22%)
46 (23%)
27 (13.5%)
2.92
1.29
Outdoor spaces provide
adequate shade during sunny
periods.
36 (18%)
54 (27%)
44 (22%)
31 (15.5%)
3.00
1.41
Outdoor areas remain usable
during rainfall.
43 (21.5%)
34 (17%)
41 (20.5%)
30 (15%)
2.82
1.40
Landscape elements help reduce
heat on campus.
37 (18.5%)
39 (19.5%)
43 (21.5%)
41 (20.5%)
3.06
1.42
Outdoor spaces are designed to
cope with changing weather
conditions.
28 (14.1%)
41 (20.7%)
48 (24.2%)
34 (17.2%)
3.04
1.35
Table 4.3: Environmental Comfort and Usability
Statement
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Mean
SD
Outdoor spaces are comfortable
to use during extreme heat.
42 (21%)
50 (25%)
38 (19%)
46 (23%)
24 (12%)
2.80
1.35
Wind circulation in outdoor
spaces is adequate.
30 (15%)
41 (20.5%)
50 (25%)
46 (23%)
33 (16.5%)
3.06
1.32
There are enough shaded seating
areas.
42 (21%)
42 (21%)
44 (22%)
39 (19.5%)
33 (16.5%)
2.90
1.38
Outdoor spaces remain
functional during heavy rainfall.
29
(14.5%)
39 (19.5%)
49
(24.5%)
43 (21.5%)
40 (20%)
3.13
1.34
Landscape design helps improve
thermal comfort on campus.
31
(15.5%)
46 (23%)
44 (22%)
40 (20%)
39 (19.5%)
3.05
1.36
Table 4.4: Design Limitations Affecting Interaction and Climate Response
Statement
Strongly
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Mean
SD
Some outdoor spaces become
uncomfortable due to excessive
heat.
25 (12.5%)
51 (25.5%)
47 (23.5%)
41 (20.5%)
3.22
1.28
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Lack of shade discourages
outdoor activities.
31 (15.5%)
38 (19%)
43 (21.5%)
51 (25.5%)
3.23
1.41
Poor drainage affects the
usability of outdoor spaces.
42 (21%)
42 (21%)
49 (24.5%)
32 (16%)
2.97
1.39
The layout of outdoor spaces
limits user interaction.
38 (19%)
46 (23%)
51 (25.5%)
34 (17%)
3.06
1.37
Outdoor spaces lack climate-
responsive design features.
40 (20%)
47 (23.5%)
33 (16.5%)
36 (18%)
2.91
1.38
Table 4.5: Degree of Adaptability of Existing Landscape Elements
Statement
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Mean
SD
Trees and vegetation help
regulate temperature in outdoor
spaces.
35 (17.5%)
45 (22.5%)
41 (20.5%)
39 (19.5%)
40 (20%)
3.02
1.40
Outdoor spaces can
accommodate different
activities.
35 (17.5%)
32 (16%)
51 (25.5%)
45 (22.5%)
37 (18.5%)
3.09
1.35
Landscape design allows
flexible use of space.
41 (20.5%)
42 (21%)
42 (21%)
42 (21%)
33 (16.5%)
2.92
1.38
Green infrastructure supports
climate adaptation.
36 (18%)
37 (18.5%)
35 (17.5%)
45 (22.5%)
47 (23.5%)
3.15
1.43
Outdoor spaces can easily
adapt to environmental
changes.
32 (16%)
26 (13%)
54 (27%)
40 (20%)
48 (24%)
3.23
1.36
Table 4.6: Overall User Satisfaction
Statement
Strongly
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Mean
SD
Outdoor spaces contribute
positively to my campus
experience.
35 (17.5%)
41 (20.5%)
38 (19%)
41 (20.5%)
3.03
1.41
Outdoor spaces encourage social
interaction among users.
38 (19%)
41 (20.5%)
45 (22.5%)
35 (17.5%)
2.99
1.38
The landscape design makes
outdoor areas attractive and
functional.
32 (16%)
42 (21%)
55 (27.5%)
32 (16%)
3.08
1.34
Outdoor spaces are flexible for
different uses (study, relaxation,
recreation).
33 (16.5%)
44 (22%)
46 (23%)
35 (17.5%)
3.04
1.36
I am satisfied with the design of
outdoor spaces on campus.
26 (13%)
50 (25%)
44 (22%)
41 (20.5%)
3.18
1.32
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The study examined the flexibility of outdoor spaces at Caleb University in responding to climate change.
Findings show that outdoor spaces are moderately used, with most users visiting occasionally rather than daily
(Mean = 2.92 for hot weather performance), suggesting that environmental comfort and design quality influence
usage patterns. Walkways and recreational fields are the most frequently used areas (28% and 24.5%
respectively), while courtyards and seating spaces are less utilized, indicating limited effectiveness as social and
relaxation hubs.
The performance of outdoor spaces under changing climate conditions was rated as average. While vegetation
and landscape elements contribute to heat reduction (Mean = 3.06), usability during rainfall (Mean = 2.82) and
extreme heat (Mean = 2.80) remains inadequate. Respondents reported insufficient shade (Mean = 3.00 for shade
provision, but Mean = 3.23 indicating lack of shade discourages activities), poor drainage (Mean = 2.97), and
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inconsistent wind circulation (Mean = 3.06), highlighting thermal discomfort as a major barrier to outdoor space
use.
Design limitations were strongly identified, including lack of climate-responsive features (Mean = 2.91) and
layouts that restrict social interaction (Mean = 3.06). Although green infrastructure and vegetation support
climate adaptation to some extent (Mean = 3.15), the flexibility of spaces for multiple uses remains moderate
(Mean = 2.92 for flexible use, Mean = 3.09 for accommodating different activities).
Overall user satisfaction with outdoor spaces is average (Mean = 3.18). While the spaces contribute positively
to campus life (Mean = 3.03) and social interaction (Mean = 2.99), they do not fully function as comfortable,
adaptable, and climate-resilient environments. The findings therefore emphasize the need for improved shading,
drainage, spatial layout, and climate-responsive landscape design to enhance usability and resilience.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This study evaluated the flexibility of outdoor spaces at Caleb University in responding to climate change using
adaptive landscape design principles. The findings confirm that climate variability—particularly rising
temperatures, intense rainfall, and heat stress—has a noticeable impact on the usability, comfort, and social value
of outdoor spaces on campus.
The results reveal that outdoor spaces are moderately functional but not fully climate responsive. Although
walkways, recreational fields, and green areas are actively used, most users only utilize outdoor spaces
occasionally rather than daily. This indicates that environmental comfort significantly influences outdoor
behaviour.
The study identified thermal discomfort, insufficient shading, and poor drainage as the most critical limitations
affecting usability. Outdoor spaces were found to perform only moderately during hot weather and rainfall,
demonstrating that current landscape design strategies are not adequately adapted to evolving climate conditions.
Furthermore, spatial layouts were perceived to limit social interaction and flexible use, indicating that the campus
landscape lacks multifunctional and adaptive design features.
Despite these challenges, existing vegetation and green infrastructure already provide a foundation for climate
adaptation. Users generally acknowledged that outdoor spaces contribute positively to campus experience;
however, overall satisfaction remains only average. This suggests that Caleb University possesses strong
potential for climate-responsive transformation, but targeted design interventions are required to improve
comfort, resilience, and flexibility.
In conclusion, the study establishes that while Caleb University's outdoor spaces provide basic functionality,
significant improvements are needed to transform them into climate-resilient, socially vibrant, and adaptable
environments capable of supporting long-term sustainability.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following adaptive landscape design strategies are recommended:
Improve Shading and Heat Mitigation
Introduce continuous tree-canopy networks along walkways and gathering spaces.
Install pergolas, tensile canopies, and shaded pavilions in seating and study areas.
Increase use of native, drought-resistant trees to create long-term microclimate cooling.
Replace heat-absorbing hard surfaces with cool pavements and permeable materials.
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Enhance Stormwater Management and Drainage
Implement bioswales, rain gardens, and retention ponds to manage heavy rainfall.
Introduce permeable paving systems for walkways and plazas.
Redesign low-lying areas prone to flooding to improve surface runoff control.
Create Flexible and Multifunctional Outdoor Spaces
Design outdoor spaces that support study, relaxation, events, and recreation simultaneously.
Introduce movable seating and modular furniture to allow adaptable use.
Develop multi-seasonal spaces that remain functional during both dry and rainy periods.
Improve Spatial Layout and Social Interaction
Develop activity nodes and social hubs across campus.
Improve connectivity between outdoor spaces using shaded pedestrian corridors.
Redesign courtyards and seating areas to encourage informal learning and interaction.
Strengthen Green Infrastructure and Biodiversity
Expand green corridors and biodiversity zones across campus.
Incorporate urban agriculture and outdoor learning gardens.
Increase vegetation coverage to reduce the urban heat island effect.
Establish Climate-Responsive Campus Planning Policies
Integrate adaptive landscape strategies into future campus master planning.
Conduct regular post-occupancy evaluations of outdoor spaces.
Promote campus awareness and participation in sustainability initiatives.
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