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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue IV, April 2026

Optimizing Water and Nutrient Use Efficiency Through Deficit

Irrigation and Fertilization Strategies in Cucumber (Cucumis Sativus

L.)

Joan Nneamaka EZE

, Patricia Ayaegbunem OKOH

, Teslim Aderibigbe ADEMIJU

Department of Home Economics Education

2,3

Department of Agricultural Education, School of Secondary Education (Vocational), Federal College of

Education (Technical), Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150400080

Received: 13 April 2026; Accepted: 18 April 2026; Published: 12 May 2026

ABSTRACT

Water scarcity and declining soil fertility are major constraints to sustainable vegetable production in sub-Saharan

Africa, particularly under rain-fed and poorly managed irrigation systems. This study examined how deficit

irrigation, together with integrated fertilization methods, affected water-use efficiency (WUE) and nutrient-use

efficiency (NUE) in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants. The study utilized a Randomized Complete Block

Design (RCBD) with three replications to conduct experiments in Asaba, Delta State, Nigeria. The study applied

three irrigation treatments, including full crop water supply at 100% and reduced supplies at 75% and 50% of crop

water need, together with two NPK treatments at 60 and 120 kg/ha, two poultry manure treatments at 3 and 6 t/ha,

and control plots. Fruit yield fluctuated drastically over the course of the experiments; it ranged from 2.26 t/ha with

I50N0M0 to 4.78 t/ha with I100N6M6, an increase of 111.5%.

Full irrigation (I100) consistently produced the highest yield, with yields reduced by 8.9% to 12.1% under I75,

depending on nutrient management. Still, the application of nutrient-rich treatment (N6M6) at I75 achieved a yield

of 4.20 t/ha, which was only 0.58 t/ha lower than full irrigation. Water and concordant nutrient management showed

significant main and interaction effects on yield in a two-way ANOVA, with highly significant main and interaction

effects on fruit yield. Variability is about 5.67%, reflecting high precision in the experiments. This shows that

adequate interaction between water and nutrient availability strongly influences cucumber yield, differentiating

production and must lead to effective water use; the adoption of such strategies should not substantially hamper

production.

The results demonstrated that irrigation at 50%, combined with high manure application at 6 t/ha and high NPK

application at 120 kg/ha, produced the best irrigation water use efficiency of 19.49 kg/m³ and water use efficiency

of 16.73 kg/m³. Under full irrigation conditions with low NPK and high manure application, the study observed the

highest nutrient use efficiency, achieving a yield of 26.00 kg per kilogram of nutrient. Post-harvest soil analysis

demonstrated that integrated nutrient applications enhanced soil pH, organic matter content, total nitrogen, and

available phosphorus compared with unfertilized controls. The combination of organic amendments and deficit

irrigation resulted in significant increases in water productivity while maintaining yield levels. The study establishes

that South-South Nigerian sandy loam soils achieve optimal water and nutrient use efficiencies through integrated

nutrient management, which combines deficit irrigation with 60 kg/ha NPK and 6 t/ha poultry manure for cucumber

production.

Keywords: Deficit irrigation, water use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency, cucumber, fertilization

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INTRODUCTION

In developing countries, food security poses a major challenge due to inconsistent rainfall, poor soil fertility, and

low levels of agricultural input, resulting in reduced yields (Akinrinde, 2006). Akinrinde et al. (2005) highlight that

limited soil biodiversity, nutrient deficiencies, financial limitations, moisture stress, erosion, excessive phosphorus

fixation, high acidity with aluminum toxicity, and inadequate soil fertility hinder tropical soil productivity and

sustainable farming practices. Despite significant oil revenues, agriculture is still one of Nigeria's most vital

economic sectors. It accounts for roughly 70% of employment, meets around 80% of the nation's food requirements,

and contributes over 40% of the GDP (Adenuga et al., 2013). Enhancing water use efficiency in irrigation is

becoming increasingly critical, as agriculture is the largest water consumer worldwide. Vegetable production is

significantly threatened by population growth and climate change, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Indeed,

climate change can result in more frequent, intense, and extended droughts (Jones & van Vliet, 2018). Fertilization

not only boosts crop yields but also improves product quality by influencing soil fertility and nutrient levels.

However, the overuse of chemical fertilizers can lead to low efficiency, as uneven fertilization may cause

micronutrient deficiencies (Souri et al., 2017). Attempts to boost agricultural output through fertilizer

overapplication have resulted in soil degradation, groundwater contamination, and various ecological and

environmental issues (Li et al., 2023). According to Opara et al. (2012), using a combination of organic and

inorganic fertilizers enhances fruit yield and nutrient absorption. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus), a popular vegetable

from the Cucurbitaceae family, is a key global crop known for its nutritional value and economic importance

(Amtmann & Blatt, 2009). This succulent plant features broad leaves that shade the fruit and has a high-water

content. The plant produces soft, hearty vines that climb supports and develop substantial leaves above the fruits

(Wehner & Gunner, 2004). Cucumber is an essential horticultural crop cultivated and consumed worldwide due to

its distinctive flavor, health advantages, and significant production. Cucumbers require more water than grain crops,

and the amount of irrigation water used at all growth stages significantly impacts cucumber fresh fruit yields.

Irrigation regimes with water deficits during the fruiting stages produce the least fruitful results (Mao et al., 2003).

Due to the small amount of wet soil, there will be minimal change in the root zone's soil moisture content from the

start to the end of the growth season. Deficit irrigation has emerged as an effective water management technique

capable of optimizing water use efficiency (WUE) while ensuring satisfactory yields. This method intentionally

supplies water below the complete requirements for crops during particular growth phases or over the entire growing

season (Yu et al., 2020). Xu et al. (2024) note that certain crops can sustain fairly high yields even under moderate

water deficits, which substantially enhance WUE. The effectiveness of deficit irrigation, however, relies on several

factors, such as crop type, growth phase, environmental conditions, and irrigation scheduling (Zou et al., 2021).

Few studies have investigated the combined effects of irrigation depth and frequency on cucumber output, despite

many examining each factor individually. This knowledge gap is particularly crucial in locations like Nigeria, where

local environmental factors and resource constraints require the adaptation of water management systems.

Understanding cucumber responses to limited fertilization and irrigation is critical; however, study on this topic is

limited, particularly in the South-South, Nigeria. This study intends to explore Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and

Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) in cucumber production through deficit irrigation and fertilization strategies to

promote sustainable farming in the region.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The study was carried out at the Demonstration Farm of the Federal College of Education (Technical), Asaba, Delta

State, South- South, Nigeria during 2025/2026 growing season. Delta State is Nigeria's oil- and agriculture-

producing state, located in the South-South geopolitical area of the Niger Delta region, with a population of

4,098,291 (males: 2,674,306; females: 2,024,085) (NPC, 2006). With an area of approximately 762 square

kilometers (294 sq mi), the capital city is Asaba, situated at the northern end of the state, while Ogwashi-Uku has

the largest land area for industry. Asaba is located on a terrace overlooking the point where the Anambra River flows

into it from the lower Niger River. Beyond the river banks, secondary forest vegetation thrives on the high plains

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that are much more widespread than the river basins (Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) 2013). It is the capital of

Delta State, Nigeria, and the headquarters of Oshimili South Local Government Area of the state, which is in the

South -South Zone of Nigeria. and it lies between longitudes 6°38′44″ and 6°44′00″ east of the Greenwich Meridian

and latitude 6°08′00″ and 6°16 ‟00” North of equator.

Soil Properties

At the experimental site, a thorough soil evaluation was carried out to determine the baseline physicochemical

characteristics of the soil before cucumber seedlings are transplanted and after harvesting of the cucumber. To

guarantee a representative profile of the root zone, soil samples were taken from the field using a soil auger at depths

varying from 0 to 60 cm. To capture geographic heterogeneity and improve the analysis's accuracy, composite

samples were taken from various locations within the experimental region. Soil pH, bulk density, electrical

conductivity (EC), particle size distribution, and textural categorization are among the physical and chemical

characteristics that need to be ascertained. Total nitrogen (N), accessible phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium

(K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na) are among the essential macro- and micronutrients that was

also measured.

Climatic Condition

This study concentrates on three crucial meteorological parameters: temperature, precipitation, and relative

humidity, and aims to minimize the risk of such associations among independent variables and to ensure the

analysis’s accuracy and reliability. The Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET) provide climate data for the

2025–2026 season, offering a detailed meteorological profile for the analysis that includes minimum and maximum

temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed, and sunshine duration.

Land Preparation

The study takes place in a designated area at the Demonstration Farm of the Federal College of Education

(Technical) in Asaba. This location was selected for its established effectiveness in vegetable cultivation, as

demonstrated by past successful growing attempts. The designated plot measures 36 meters by 72 meters, providing

sufficient space for the necessary management techniques and experimental design for cucumber production.

Extensive pre-planting procedures were conducted to ensure optimal soil conditions. The area was ploughed

thoroughly to a depth of approximately 30 cm using a tractor-mounted disc plough. This step is designed to break

up compacted soil layers, enhance root penetration, and improve aeration. Approximately a week after ploughing,

the ground was harrowed to further break up large soil clumps and level the soil, creating a finer seedbed better

suited for planting.

Experimental Design, Treatments, and Planting

Seeds of Cucumis sativus L. (Cucumber Tokyo) were germinated at a constant temperature of 28 °C in sterile Petri

dishes lined with two layers of moistened filter paper to maintain optimal moisture levels. Once the acclimatization

period is over, the seedlings were transplanted into field plots and were then subjected to the specified combinations

of irrigation, NPK fertilizer, and organic manure treatments as set forth in the experimental design. The study utilizes

a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), featuring three replications arranged along the natural slope of the

field. The experimental treatments include a factorial combination of three irrigation regimes (100%, 75%, and 50%

of the crop's water requirement), two levels of NPK fertilizer (60kg/ha and 120kg/ha), and two levels of poultry

manure (3 t/ha and 6 t/ha). Additionally, three control treatments were included, each representing an irrigation level

without fertilizer or manure amendments, resulting in a total of 15 treatment combinations (Table 1).

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Table 1: Treatment for Field Experiment

Treatment

Irrigation (mm)

NPK (kg/ha)

Manure (t/ha)

Description

100

Control (Full irrigation, no NPK or manure)

Control (75% irrigation, no NPK or manure)

Control (50% irrigation, no NPK or manure)

100

120

Full irrigation + High NPK + High manure

120

75% irrigation + High NPK + High manure

120

50% irrigation + High NPK + High manure

100

120

Full irrigation + High NPK + Low manure

120

75% irrigation + High NPK + Low manure

120

50% irrigation + High NPK + Low manure

100

Full irrigation + Low NPK + High manure

75% irrigation + Low NPK + High manure

50% irrigation + Low NPK + High manure

100

100% irrigation + Low NPK + Low manure

75% irrigation + Low NPK + Low manure

50% irrigation + Low NPK + Low manure

Staking was carried out to support cucumber vines while preventing their fruits from direct contact with the soil.

The staking process involved using bamboo stakes and white rope, which were available locally for construction

work.

Irrigation Systems

The irrigation system aims to improve soil moisture retention and provide adequate water for crop growth, thereby

supporting critical physiological processes in plants, such as photosynthesis and nutrient absorption, which will

ultimately enhance cucumber growth and yield potential. The experimental design outlines three irrigation levels:

full irrigation (100%), which meets all water needs to raise soil moisture content to field capacity (FC). Irrigation

will occur when 50% of the available soil water in the root zone has been depleted, as determined through soil

moisture monitoring techniques. The deficit irrigation treatments will apply water at 75% and 50% of the total

irrigation requirement, respectively, adhering to the same scheduling as the full irrigation treatment.

Irrigation Water Application, Water Use Efficiency and Nutrient Use Efficiency

Irrigation water was applied as per the schedule of the irrigation treatments. Soil moisture was calculated at each

stage of the crop by the gravimetric method before irrigation. The depth of irrigation water was calculated by

equation 1.

  󰇡





󰇢 Eqn. 1

Where,

d = Irrigation water depth (cm)

FC = Field capacity (% vol.)

M = Percent moisture content (volume basis)

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Water use efficiency (WUE) was determined as the ratio of the amount of economic crop yield to the amount of

water required for growing the crops. WUE was determined to evaluate the benefit of applied water through

economic crop production as expressed in equation 2.

 





Eqn. 2

Where;

WUE = field water use efficiency (t/ha-mm)

Y = economic crop yield (t/ha)

ET = Water requirement of the crop (ha-mm)

The volume of nutrient solution applied per plant was recorded daily, and the concentration of each nutrient in the

applied solution was known. The quantity of each applied nutrient per plant was computed by multiplying the mean

nutrient concentration in the applied solution by the volume of nutrient solution applied to a plant. NUE was

calculated according to Jisha Chand (2014) using equation 3.

󰇡





󰇢 

󰇛











󰇜

󰇛











󰇜

Eqn. 3

Crop Evapotranspiration

Crop evapotranspiration (ET, mm) values of different irrigation treatments were calculated based on the soil water

budget as expressed in equation 4 (Garrit et al., 1982).

 =  +  −  −  ±  Eqn. 4

Where I is the applied irrigation water amount (mm), P is the precipitation, R is the runoff (mm), D is the drainage

below the effective root depth (mm), and  is the soil water content difference between two measurements (mm

90 cm

-1

). The amount of irrigation water was measured by a water meter for each plot. The changes in soil water

content between different measurements were calculated by the gravimetric method. In determining the ET, the

water content in the 0-60 cm layer of the soil was taken into account (Patane & Cosentino, 2010). The runoff is not

taken into consideration in the computation for the soil water budget since irrigation water was administered in a

regulated manner using the drip irrigation method.

Statistical Analysis

To evaluate the individual and combined effects of various irrigation strategies and fertilizer application rates on

the water use efficiency (WUE) and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), a

comprehensive statistical analysis was conducted. The analysis was performed using Minitab version 19 (Minitab

Inc., State College, PA, USA). ANOVA helps deter

mine whether the differences observed among treatment means are statistically significant. When significant

differences are identified, Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test is applied for multiple comparisons

among treatment means to identify specific differences between combinations. All statistical tests were conducted

at a 95% confidence level, with differences considered significant at p ≤ 0.05.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Physical and Chemical Properties of the Soil

The physical and chemical properties of soil, such as textural class, bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), water

holding capacity (WHC), field capacity (FC), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), available phosphorus (Av. P), total

nitrogen (TN), exchangeable bases (K, Ca, Na, Mg), effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC), organic matter

(OM), and total organic carbon (TOC). were determined in each of three blocks at three depth intervals: 0–20 cm,

20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm.

Particles Size Distribution

The classification of soil textural class depends on the amounts of sand, silt, and clay in the soil sample (Table 2).

The results showed that sand was the dominant fraction across all blocks and depths, ranging from 63.74% to

79.10%. Silt content ranged from 22.37% to 32.64%, and clay content varied from 10.52% to 13.64%. The sandy

loam texture has important implications for soil management. The high sand content promotes good air movement

through the soil, making it easier for farmers to till their fields and supporting root development in plants. The soil

structure allows water to move quickly, but this trait also causes the soil to lose water and nutrients rapidly. The

results align with the findings of Okoh et al. (2025), which showed that soils with high sand content and low clay

fractions experience increased pollutant leaching because of their larger pore spaces and limited ability to retain

contaminants.

Table 2: Physical Properties and Particle Distribution of the Soil at Different Depths

Block

Depth

(cm)

Sand

(%)

Silt

(%)

Clay

(%)

Textural Class

BD (g/cm3)

TP (%)

WHC (%)

(%)

00-20

6.5

68.3

31.19

11.78

Sandy loam

1.53

42.3

23.5

20-40

6.7

74.5

27.1

11.01

Sandy loam

1.57

40.8

22.7

40-60

6.8

79.1

22.37

11.45

Sandy loam

1.64

38.1

00-20

6.45

68.4

31.23

11.36

Sandy loam

1.55

41.5

23.6

20-40

6.23

70.34

29.44

10.52

Sandy loam

1.61

39.2

23.1

40-60

5.71

72.17

28.34

10.86

Sandy loam

1.64

38.1

22.7

00-20

6.52

63.74

32.64

13.42

Sandy loam

1.55

41.5

24.8

20-40

5.82

73.71

29.62

13.49

Sandy loam

1.59

22.3

40-60

6.33

69.71

25.65

13.64

Sandy loam

1.62

38.9

23.3

* BD = Bulk Density, TP = Total Porosity, WHC = Water Holding Capacity, FC = Field Capacity

Bulk Density (g/cm3)

Bulk density and total porosity are important indicators of soil compaction and structure, directly influencing root

development and water availability throughout the soil profile. Bulk density values ranged from 1.53 to 1.64 g/cm³,

steadily increasing with depth across all blocks (Table 2). This suggests compaction in subsoil layers, likely due to

reduced organic matter and increased overburden pressure. Surface soils (0–20 cm) displayed lower bulk density,

indicating better structure and higher biological activity. A clear trend of increasing bulk density with depth was

observed in all blocks. The bulk density varied with depth across locations, attributable to soil-forming processes

and low OM in the sub-surface horizon. Chaudhari et al. (2013) also observed increases in bulk density with depth,

which was linked to low organic matter.

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Total Porosity

Total porosity ranged from 38.1% to 42.3% and decreased with depth in all blocks (Table 2). This reduction in

porosity indicates a less porous medium at greater depths, which can hinder water movement and root growth. This

inverse relationship with bulk density is expected, as increased compaction reduces pore spaces. Surface soils

showed higher porosity, promoting root development and water infiltration. According to Brady and Weil (2015),

total porosity values vary widely across different soil types, ranging from 25% in compacted soils to 60% in well-

aggregated soils, depending on soil aggregate size, aeration, and water retention characteristics. The observed

porosity falls within this range, with a pattern indicating that subsurface soils are more compacted than surface

horizons, which exhibit excellent soil aggregation that supports plant growth (Alaoui et al., 2011).

Water Holding Capacity and Field Capacity

The water-holding capacity (WHC) and field capacity (FC) of soil are key factors in its ability to retain water and

supply moisture needed by plants during drought conditions (Table 2). These properties are vital for supporting crop

growth under different climatic circumstances. The WHC and FC values across all blocks and depths ranged from

21.0% to 24.8%, decreasing as soil depth increased. This method is widely accepted because researchers studying

Nigerian sandy loam soils have successfully employed it (Abdullahi et al., 2025).

Soil pH

Soil pH is a key characteristic that influences various chemical and biological reactions in soil, critically affecting

the soil's ability to support plant growth. It determines how nutrients become available to plants through ion

exchange and controls microbial processes that decompose organic matter and distribute nutrients throughout the

ecosystem. The pH values across the study area ranged from moderately acidic (5.71) to near neutral (6.80),

indicating generally favourable conditions for crop production (Table 3). This is likely due to the decomposition of

organic matter and the production of organic acids in soils, which is consistent with the findings of Abegunrin et al.

(2013). The results suggest that proper management, routine assessment, and appropriate soil amendments are

necessary to maintain optimal pH levels for sustainable crop growth.

Electrical Conductivity

Soil electrical conductivity (EC), used to estimate salinity, is a measure of the soil's capacity to conduct electricity.

EC is directly influenced by the concentration of water-soluble salts and moisture content. The EC values were quite

low across all samples (Table 3). The measured EC values ranged from 10.67 to 13.76 mg/kg, which, when

converted to equivalent salinity, are acceptable for normal plant growth. This abnormally low EC value is

advantageous for sustainable cropping, as salt accumulation could impair water supply to plants and require energy

to regulate osmotic conditions (Marschner, 2012).

Organic Matter and Total Organic Carbon

The positive and negative charges in soil organic matter enable the soil to exchange both cations and anions. A

decrease in organic matter reduces soil exchange capacity, leading to lower access to minerals and nutrients. The

organic matter (OM) content in the sample ranged from 4. 46% to 6. 78%, while the total organic carbon (TOC)

ranged between 1. 34% and 2. 78%, as shown in Table 3. Surface soils exhibited higher OM and TOC levels, with

fluctuations driven by plant residue accumulation and microbial activity. The study found that organic matter content

decreased with increasing soil depth because organic matter input declines in the subsoil layers. These results

suggest that the soil has either received substantial organic matter inputs from crop residue retention and manure

applications or contains conditions that promote organic matter accumulation by reducing decomposition rates

(Brady & Weil, 2017). The high organic matter content provides vital benefits for soil fertility by acting as a reservoir

for plant nutrients, enhancing cation exchange capacity, improving soil structure, and increasing water retention

capacity (Havlin et al., 2016).

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Available Phosphorus and Total Nitrogen

The study found that available phosphorus (Av. P) was low, ranging from 0.11 to 0.37 ppm, indicating a potential

phosphorus deficiency in the soils (Table 3). Higher phosphorus concentrations in the surface layers, followed by a

decline with depth, may be attributed to organic matter mineralization and fertilizer accumulation in the topsoil. The

highly weathered tropical soils display low phosphorus levels due to their tendency to fix phosphorus through iron

and aluminum oxides. This condition prevents crop production and necessitates the supply of phosphorus through

proper fertilization. The micro-Kjeldahl method revealed total nitrogen (TN) results ranging from 0.18% to 0.68%,

with topsoil samples showing higher nitrogen content (Table 3). The agricultural soils reach medium to high levels

because nitrogen content is directly related to soil organic matter, which serves as the main nitrogen reservoir (Brady

& Weil, 2017). Total nitrogen content includes all nitrogen forms in the soil, and mineralization processes determine

which forms plants can absorb. Farmers require efficient nitrogen management systems, including split fertilizer

application, to maintain productive crops while utilizing adequate TN levels.

Exchangeable Bases (K, Ca, Na, Mg)

The exchangeable bases showed calcium as the most abundant cation, ranging from 12.39 to 16.14 cmol/kg across

all sampling depths and locations (Table 3). The fertility rating system from Landon 1991 indicates that calcium

levels above 5 cmol/kg are considered high. Calcium, as the primary element, is present in soils developing from

base-rich parent materials because it maintains soil structure and promotes optimal root growth through its chemical

properties (Havlin et al., 2016). Magnesium (Mg) was the second most common base, with levels between 2.69 and

3.73 cmol/kg. The Ca:Mg ratio ranged from 3.6 to 5.1, which falls within its balanced range, reducing potential

negative impacts on plant absorption (Marschner, 2012). The moderate potassium status suggests that, although not

severely deficient, regular monitoring and maintenance applications may be necessary to prevent depletion,

especially under intensive cropping systems (Havlin et al., 2016). Akinde et al. (2025) demonstrated that organic

amendments such as poultry manure can enhance potassium availability in Nigerian benchmark soils by improving

cation exchange capacity and reducing leaching losses.

Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC)

The study measured total exchangeable bases, including calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, to determine

the effective cation exchange capacity. The ECEC values ranged from 10.52 cmol/kg to 18.57 cmol/kg, which

Landon (1991) classifies as medium to high. The study found that nutrient retention capacity is moderate, depending

on clay content and exchangeable bases. These findings are consistent with those of Angyu et al. (2025), who studied

savanna soils treated with organic materials and observed ECEC improvements linked to increased organic carbon.

Climatic Conditions and Their Influence on Soil Properties and Cucumber Production.

The successful growth of crops relies on the complex relationships between soil traits and weather patterns. Studying

seasonal weather patterns is essential because they help scientists determine which crops will thrive in specific areas

and how to manage those crops. Table 4 presents climatic conditions analysis for the study area, covering the

growing season from December 2025 to February 2026, and explains how weather patterns interact with soil traits

to support cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) production.

A mean temperature of 30. 78 ° C during the day supported plant development despite marginal daytime

temperatures, especially when soil moisture and nutrients were adequate (Olarewaju et al., 2023). The sandy loam

soils, containing 4. 4.46% to 6. 6.78% organic matter, play a crucial role in maintaining temperature stability by

enhancing moisture retention and reducing temperature swings. Since cucumber production requires 25-50 mm of

water per week across various growth stages and weather conditions, farmers often rely on supplementary irrigation

due to insufficient rainfall to meet crop needs. In the study area, cucumber cultivation relies on sandy loam soils

with specific water-holding properties that keep moisture content between 21.0% and 24.8% at field capacity. These

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soils offer moderate water retention, allowing them to store adequate moisture between rainfall and irrigation events.

Khanal and Poudel (2020) found that sandy loam soils support effective cucumber farming through supplementary

irrigation because they maintain a balance between drainage and water retention, creating optimal conditions for

root growth. Harmattan conditions that cause lower humidity usually occur during the dry season in southern Nigeria

and increase water loss through transpiration, leading to wilting when soil moisture becomes insufficient.

The sandy loam soils in this area can tolerate brief water shortages when farmers use proper irrigation practices.

The moderate humidity in February (62.02%) provides ideal conditions for continuous plant growth and fruit

development. Combined with increasing rainfall, this humidity level supports cucumber production while reducing

the risk of foliar diseases linked to very high humidity (Iwe, 2025). The daily average sunshine hours, based on

these totals, are around 4.1 hours per day in December, 6.5 hours in January, and 3.8 hours in February. These

figures are below the essential minimum of 8 to 10 hours per day needed for successful cucumber cultivation

(Craufurd & Wheeler, 2005). The sunshine duration in January, at 6.5 hours per day, offers favourable conditions

for plant growth by supporting flower development and fruiting. In contrast, the sunshine durations in December

and February, at 4.1 and 3.8 hours per day respectively, create less suitable conditions for the early and late stages

of growth. Ikkonen et al. (2021) found that cucumber varieties grown in soils enriched with organic matter showed

improved light use efficiency, which partly offsets the effects of lower light levels.

Table 3 Chemical Properties of Soil at Different Depths

Bloc

Dept

(cm)

(mg/K

Av.P

(ppm

)

(%)

(cmol/k

ECEC

(cmol/k

(%)

TOC

(%)

00-

6.5

13.34

0.37

0.6

0.29

14.93

0.66

3.42

16.28

5.9

1.79

20-

6.7

13.76

0.19

0.6

0.27

14.91

0.68

3.31

13.67

6.3

2.18

40-

6.8

10.67

0.17

0.2

0.38

13.48

0.82

3.33

18.57

6.7

1.96

00-

6.4

12.71

0.31

0.3

0.28

16.14

0.87

3.16

17.44

5.6

1.76

20-

6.2

12.67

0.12

0.2

0.37

14.52

0.69

3.73

14.22

5.1

2.45

40-

5.7

11.78

0.13

0.1

0.45

13.25

0.95

2.96

18.32

6.2

2.78

00-

6.5

11.51

0.17

0.3

0.24

12.87

0.71

2.69

13.44

5.6

1.34

20-

5.8

11.86

0.18

0.3

0.21

14.31

0.62

3.49

10.52

4.4

1.78

40-

6.3

12.88

0.11

0.3

0.27

12.39

0.73

3.16

11.67

6.4

2.38

*Electrical Conductivity (EC), Available Phosphorus (Av. P), Total Nitrogen (TN), Potassium(K), Calcium

(Ca), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Organic matter (OM), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Effective

Cation Exchange capacity (ECEC).

Table 4 Climatic Conditions of the Study Area during Growing Season

Parameter

December 2025

January 2026

February 2026

Average High Temperature (°C)

35.12

29.23

30.22

Average Low Temperature (°C)

23.01

25.42

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Average Temperature (°C)

29.14

29.34

30.78

Precipitation(mm/month)

8.78

10.65

33.02

Humidity (%)

68.87

54.66

62.02

Sunshine (hrs/day)

128

202

105

*Sunshine values are presented as total monthly sunshine hours, indicating the cumulative sunshine duration

for each month.

Irrigation Water Applied and Crop Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) involves both soil evaporation and plant transpiration, which together represent the primary

measure of water consumption in agricultural systems. Accurate determination of ET is essential for irrigation

planning, estimating crop water needs, and assessing integrated water and nutrient management (Igbadun et al.,

2012). The number of irrigation events varied with irrigation frequency and crop duration, with 13, 14, and 16

applications recorded under a 4-day interval schedule.

Full irrigation (I100) had the highest irrigation frequency, whereas deficit irrigation reduced the number of irrigation

periods throughout the cropping cycle. Table 5 demonstrated a clear positive relationship between the amount of

water applied and actual crop evapotranspiration across all nutrient regimes. Under the control treatment (N0M0),

ET decreased from 415.02 mm under full irrigation (I100) to 323.65 mm under I75 (a 22.0% reduction), and further

to 231.56 mm under I50 (a 44.2% reduction relative to I100). Water supply is the main factor influencing crop water

consumption because ET declines when water resources are limited, even under ideal growth conditions. During

peak growth periods, crop water demand increased, resulting in a larger decrease in ET because plants required more

water. These findings align with recent studies conducted in Nigeria. Abegunrin et al. (2025) reported that irrigation

at 70% ETc improved water-use efficiency by 15% compared with full irrigation in cucumber production, while

Onwuegbunam et al. (2024) observed that deficit irrigation at 60% ETo maintained optimal water productivity in

tomato.

Table 5 Components of water balance and crop evapotranspiration across irrigation and nutrient

management treatments.

Treatments

Irrigation

(mm)

∆S

Rainfall(mm)

Runoff (mm)

Deep Percolation (mm)

ET (mm)

100

384.89

26.86

3.27

415.02

288.67

31.71

3.27

323.65

192.45

35.84

3.27

231.56

100

384.89

33.94

3.27

422.10

288.67

25.78

3.27

317.72

192.45

28.45

3.27

224.17

100

384.89

30.75

3.27

418.91

288.67

32.27

3.27

324.21

192.45

24.89

3.27

220.61

100

384.89

26.76

3.27

414.92

288.67

31.11

3.27

323.05

192.45

35.34

3.27

231.06

100

384.89

32.99

3.27

421.15

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288.67

24.28

3.27

316.22

192.45

28.54

3.27

224.26

*∆S = soil water depletion

Effects of irrigation application and nutrient management on fruit yield (t/ha)

The ultimate measure of crop productivity at cucumber farms depends on fruit yield per hectare, which growers

consider their most important agricultural requirement. The method evaluates how different agricultural

management techniques for irrigation and nutrient distribution impact the success of farming operations. Developing

productivity recommendations requires understanding how irrigation and nutrient management systems affect total

agricultural output. The fruit yield per hectare data across all treatment combinations are presented in Figure 1. The

data show that yields range between two extremes, reaching their lowest point at 2.26 t/ha for the I

treatment

and their highest at 4.78 t/ha for the I

100

treatment. Cucumber productivity varies substantially between the

highest and lowest treatment results, with a 111.5% difference, as water and nutrient management systems both

affect productivity. The yield data have important practical implications for irrigation management. The highest crop

yields were achieved with the full-irrigation method I

100

, but the moderate-deficit irrigation method I

yielded 8.9%

to 12.1% less than I

100

, depending on the nutrient regime used. Moderate deficit irrigation I

under N6M6 produced

4.20 t/ha, while I

100

produced 4.78 t/ha, resulting in a 0.58 t/ha difference between the two methods. Farmers facing

water shortages can reduce their irrigation needs to 75% of their requirements when they optimize all nutrient

management methods. The study by Zakka et al. (2020) demonstrated that cucumber yields depend on the

performance of the drip irrigation system.

Figure 1: Fruit yield (t/ha) of cucumber as influenced by irrigation and nutrient management

Interactive Effects of Irrigation and Nutrient Management on Fruit Yield (t/ha)

Table 4.6 shows the results of a two-way ANOVA for fruit yield (t/ha). The analysis revealed a significant

interaction (p ≤ 0.01) between irrigation and nutrient management effects on fruit yield. The coefficient of variation

was as low as 5.67%, which indicates good experimental precision. This low value suggests that the experimental

procedures were properly followed, and the differences observed in the mean values among treatments were mainly

due to the treatment types rather than experimental error. Additionally, the highly significant interaction effect (p ≤

0.01) highlights that the crop’s response to nutrition is largely influenced by water availability. The highly

Fruit yield (t/ha)

Treatment

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significant main effects (p ≤ 0.01) of both irrigation and nutrient management for fruit yield further confirm the

crucial roles of these factors in cucumber production. The interaction effect signifies that the extent of yield

improvement from nutrient application depends on water availability, and vice versa. Practitioners should take this

into account and adjust their nutrient management plans according to water supply predictions. These findings are

consistent with the work of Opara et al. (2012), who reported significant main and interaction effects of irrigation

frequency and poultry manure rates on cucumber yield

Table 4.6 Two-way ANOVA summary for fruit yield (t/ha) of cucumber

Source of Variation

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

F-value

Significance

Irrigation (I)

8.234

4.117

45.67

Nutrient (N)

15.678

3.920

78.34

I × N

3.456

0.432

8.45

Error

1.534

0.051

Total

28.902

**, Significant at p ≤ 0.01; CV = 5.67%

Irrigation Water Use Efficiency (IWUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

Table 7 shows the Irrigation Water Use Efficiency (IWUE) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) values obtained from

testing various irrigation methods combined with fertilizer (N) and poultry manure (M) applications. The results

reveal that all treatments yielded different outcomes because both irrigation patterns and nutrient management

strategies affected cucumber water productivity. IWUE values ranged from 7.48 kg/m³ (I

100

) to 19.49 kg/m³

), indicating a 160.6% difference between the highest and lowest treatments. WUE values ranged from 6.94

kg/m³ (I

100

) to 16.73 kg/m³ (I

), showing a 141.1% variation. Both IWUE and WUE responded similarly

to the different systems. Treatment I

had the highest IWUE (19.49) and WUE (16.73) because deficit

irrigation combined with increased nitrogen and manure improved water efficiency. The treatments I

and

also showed high IWUE and WUE because the additional nutrients helped the crop use water more

effectively. The full irrigation treatment under I

100

resulted in the lowest IWUE (7.48) and WUE (6.94), as

water was applied without fertilizer or manure. These findings suggest that the system wasted water by applying

excess amounts while neglecting nutrient application.

Table 7 Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) of cucumber as influenced by

irrigation and nutrient management

Treatment

IWUE (kg/m

)

WUE (kg/m

)

100

7.48

6.94

8.90

7.94

11.74

9.76

100

12.42

11.32

14.55

13.22

19.49

16.73

100

11.04

10.15

13.27

11.81

17.51

15.28

100

11.54

10.70

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13.96

12.47

18.91

15.75

100

9.85

9.00

11.74

10.72

15.69

13.47

The mean comparison across irrigation levels further revealed that I

recorded the highest mean IWUE (16.67) and

WUE (14.20), followed by I

, while I

100

recorded the lowest values (Table 4.8). The increase in IWUE and WUE

under deficit irrigation (I

) may be attributed to the crop's better utilization of limited water, leading to improved

water productivity. The application of nitrogen fertilizer and manure to the soil resulted in improved plant growth

and yield by increasing soil fertility and nutrient availability. The results demonstrate that cucumber production

achieves better water efficiency through the combination of moderate deficit irrigation and proper nutrient

management. Water-limited regions benefit from these agricultural practices because they enable farmers to achieve

higher crop yields per liter of water used. The trend indicates that deficit irrigation improved water-use efficiency

because plants used their limited water supply more effectively to grow and produce crops. The highly significant

(p ≤ 0.01) main effects of both irrigation and nutrient management on IWUE and WUE confirm that both factors

are critical determinants of water productivity in cucumber. Water use efficiency responds to nutrient application

through significant interaction effects that depend on water availability, and vice versa. The application of nitrogen

fertilizer combined with manure to the soil resulted in better plant growth and yield through improved soil fertility

and nutrient availability, compared with the amount of water used for irrigation. The findings demonstrate that

cucumber production achieves higher water productivity through the combination of deficit irrigation and proper

nutrient management, which is critical in areas with limited water resources. The increased water-use efficiency

under deficit irrigation results from two factors: decreased water loss through evaporation and improved crop water

use through physiological processes. The results of our research match the findings of Zakka et al. (2020) and

Igbojionu et al. (2024), who showed that moderate deficit irrigation increased water productivity in cucumber

production systems.

Table 8 Mean IWUE (kg/m³) and WUE (kg/m³) across irrigation levels

Irrigation Level

IWUE (kg/m³)

WUE (kg/m³)

I50

16.67 a

14.20 a

I75

12.48 b

11.23 b

I100

10.47 c

9.62 c

Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE)

Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) is an essential agricultural indicator that assesses the effectiveness of nitrogen

applications in producing crop yields. The calculation involves measuring fruit yield in kilograms and dividing it by

the total nutrients applied in kilograms. A high NUE indicates efficient nutrient use, while a low NUE indicates

losses through volatilisation, leaching, denitrification, or immobilisation. Table 9 displays the NUE results for three

irrigation levels (I100, I75, I50) and four fertiliser treatments (N6M6, N6M3, N3M6, N3M3). Control treatments

(N0M0) received no nutrients, so NUE could not be calculated. The values ranged from 9.25 kg/kg in I50N6M3 to

26.00 kg/kg in I100N3M6, representing a difference of 181.1%, indicating that irrigation and nutrient management

systems had a major impact on NUE. Under N6M6, NUE decreased from 15.83 kg/kg at I100 to 13.58 kg/kg at I75

(a 14.2% decrease) and 12.42 kg/kg at I50 (a 21.5% decrease). N6M3 decreased from 11.42 to 10.50 kg/kg at I75

and 9.25 kg/kg at I50. N3M6 showed smaller decreases. The N3M3 treatment decreased from 15.17 to 13.67 kg/kg

(9.9%) and then to 12.67 kg/kg (16.5%). The declines under deficit irrigation are due to water stress, which restricts

root development, nitrogen uptake, and water movement through transpiration, as well as all biological functions.

The N3M6 treatment exhibited the smallest decrease in NUE during periods of water stress, with an 11.5%

reduction, indicating that high manure application protects against the effects of water shortage. This study

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demonstrates that irrigation practices, together with nutrient management systems, strongly determine NUE levels.

The combination of moderate nitrogen and high manure (N3M6) is optimal because it maximizes nitrogen efficiency

while reducing both costs and environmental damage. The findings are in line with those of Singh et al. (2019), who

reported that nutrient use efficiencies were positively affected by fertigation level as well as varieties, with a

significant interaction.

Table 9 Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE) of cucumber as influenced by irrigation and nutrient management

Treatment

NUE (kg yield/kg nutrient)

100

15.83

13.58

12.42

100

11.42

10.5

9.25

100

24.33

100

15.17

13.67

12.67

*NUE = Nutrient Use Efficiency

Post-Planting Soil Analysis

Table 10 summarizes soil chemical properties measured after cucumber harvest under various irrigation and nutrient

management treatments. All treatments significantly affected soil pH, available phosphorus, total nitrogen,

potassium, calcium, magnesium, organic matter, and total organic carbon at P ≤ 0.05. Soil pH ranged from 5.12 to

5.44, indicating that soil acidity remained moderate across treatments. Treatment I100N6M3 produced the highest

pH (5.44), while I50N0M0 had the lowest (5.12). Treatments combining mineral fertiliser and manure had higher

pH values than the controls because nutrient amendments acted as buffering agents, reducing soil acidity. Available

phosphorus varied significantly between treatments, ranging from 0.33 to 0.57 ppm. The highest phosphorus content

(0.57 ppm) was recorded in I100N6M6, followed by I75N6M6 (0.52 ppm) and I100N6M3 (0.52 ppm), with the

lowest (0.33 ppm) in I50N0M0. The combined use of inorganic fertiliser and manure increased phosphorus

availability after harvest. Total nitrogen showed significant variation, ranging from 0.39% to 0.67%. The highest

value was in I100N6M6 (0.67%), followed by I75N6M6 (0.65%) and I100N6M3 (0.63%). The control treatments

(I50N0M0, I75N0M0, I100N0M0) had lower nitrogen levels, between 0.39% and 0.41%. The addition of nutrients,

including manure, improved soil nitrogen status. Exchangeable potassium ranged from 0.42 to 0.55 cmol/kg, with

the highest in I100N6M6 (0.55 cmol/kg) and the lowest in I75N0M0 (0.42 cmol/kg). Exchangeable calcium ranged

from 14.31 to 17.45 cmol/kg, with I100N6M6 highest and I50N0M0 lowest. Exchangeable magnesium ranged from

3.21 to 4.91 cmol/kg, with I100N6M6 showing the highest values. Organic matter (OM) ranged from 4.22% to

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6.98%, and total organic carbon (TOC) from 1.22% to 3.34%. The highest OM and TOC were in I100N6M6, while

I50N0M0 and I75N0M0 showed the lowest values.

Table 10 Effects of irrigation regime and Nutrient Management on chemical properties of soils of the

experimental site after harvesting

Treatment

Av. P

(ppm)

TN (%)

K (cmol/kg)

(cmol/kg)

OM (%)

TOC (%)

I100N0M0

5.23c

0.40ef

0.41h

0.45de

14.98fg

3.49f

4.43f

1.23g

I75N0M0

5.22c

0.35fg

0.41h

0.42e

14.88fg

3.22g

4.34f

1.22g

I50N0M0

5.12d

0.33g

0.39h

0.43e

14.31g

3.21g

4.22f

1.35g

I100N6M6

5.42ab

0.57a

0.67a

0.55a

17.45a

4.91a

6.98a

3.34a

I75N6M6

5.37ab

0.52b

0.65ab

0.52b

17.44a

4.88a

6.88a

3.22ab

I50N6M6

5.34b

0.50bcd

0.55efg

0.51bc

17.34a

4.67ab

6.77ab

3.14bc

I100N6M3

5.44a

0.52b

0.63bc

0.49cd

17.11ab

4.87a

6.78ab

3.22ab

I75N6M3

5.43a

0.51bc

0.62bcd

0.49cd

16.22cd

4.45bc

6.54bc

3.11bc

I50N6M3

5.40ab

0.49bcd

0.61bcd

0.48cd

16.78bc

4.34cd

6.55bc

3.12bc

I100N3M6

5.41ab

0.49bcd

0.59cde

0.52b

16.78bc

3.98de

5.59cd

3.01cd

I75N3M6

5.39ab

0.47cde

0.58def

0.49cd

16.44cd

3.67ef

5.66cd

2.98cd

I50N3M6

5.43a

0.47cde

0.52fg

0.48cd

16.01de

3.66ef

5.13e

2.88de

I100N3M3

5.34b

0.39ef

0.55efg

0.49cd

15.23f

3.78ef

5.34de

2.76ef

I75N3M3

5.40ab

0.39ef

0.53fg

0.49cd

15.44ef

3.78ef

5.44de

2.77ef

I50N3M3

5.38ab

0.38f

0.51g

0.48cd

15.33ef

3.67ef

5.45de

2.56f

LSD (0.05)

0.08

0.06

0.05

1.12

0.45

0.67

0.34

CV (%)

2.34

8.45

6.78

6.23

4.56

6.89

7.23

7.89

*Available Phosphorus (Av. P), Total Nitrogen (TN), Potassium(K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg),

Organic matter (OM), Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Higher organic matter content in manure-treated plots indicates that organic amendments enhance soil carbon status

and fertility. Fisher's LSD test confirmed that nutrient management significantly affected all soil chemical properties.

Treatments with high manure application rates (N6M6 and N

) generally produced the highest values, whereas

the control treatment (N0M0) yielded the lowest, highlighting the importance of nutrient application for soil fertility.

The results also suggest that irrigation water application during the study had no impact on soil chemical attributes,

likely due to the short duration and lack of nutrient contribution from water. The N

and N

treatments

performed better at improving soil chemical properties because they supplied nutrients directly from poultry manure,

thereby boosting microbial activity. Overall, the research demonstrates that integrated nutrient management is

crucial in maintaining soil fertility and sustaining cucumber production (Opara et al., 2012).

CONCLUSION

The study established that deficit irrigation, together with integrated nutrient management practices, significantly

improves water, irrigation water, and nutrient use efficiency in cucumber plants grown on sandy loam soils in Asaba,

South-South Nigeria. Maximum water use efficiency occurred when deficit irrigation provided 50% of the crop

water demand, particularly when paired with high poultry manure application at six tons per hectare and NPK

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application at 120kg/ha, yielding irrigation water use efficiency of 19.49kg/m3 and water use efficiency of

16.73kg/m3. The system achieved 160% higher results than complete irrigation without any fertilization. The study

found that nutrient use efficiency peaked at 26.00kg/yield per kg of nutrient used when full irrigation was coupled

with low NPK application at 60kg/ha and high manure application at 6 t/ha, demonstrating that organic amendments

improve nitrogen recovery while decreasing nitrogen losses.

The study found that the integrated application of inorganic fertilizer and poultry manure significantly improved

soil chemical properties, including pH, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, organic matter, and exchangeable bases,

with I₁₀₀N₆M₆ (full irrigation + high NPK + high manure) yielding the highest values. Deficit irrigation alone

(without nutrient amendments) reduced evapotranspiration and yield, but when combined with manure and NPK, it

maintained acceptable productivity while substantially improving water productivity.

The study confirms that both irrigation and nutrient management play critical and interdependent roles in determin

ing cucumber fruit yield. Maximum yield was achieved under full irrigation combined with optimal nutrient applic

ation (I100N6M6), while the lowest yield occurred under severe water and nutrient limitations. The significant int

eraction between irrigation and nutrient management indicates that the effectiveness of nutrient application depend

s on water availability. Importantly, moderate deficit irrigation (I75) can be adopted as a watersaving strategy with

minimal yield reduction when supported by adequate nutrient supply.

These findings highlight the need for integrated water

nutrient management practices to optimize productivity, particularly in water-scarce environments. The study

revealed that the interaction between irrigation regimes and nutrient treatments was statistically significant at p ≤

0.05, demonstrating that simultaneous management of both resources was necessary for optimal water and nutrient

use efficiency, which could not be achieved through their separate optimization.

The study recommends that water-limited environments in South-South Nigeria use deficit irrigation at 50% of crop

water needs, together with 60kg of NPK per hectare and 6t of poultry manure per hectare, to achieve sustainable

cucumber production. The integrated approach enables better resource utilization, decreases environmental damage

from fertilizer runoff, enhances soil quality, and contributes to climate change adaptation.

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Idowu, D. O., Adejumobi, M. A., Adebayo, T. B., & Adesoye, I. O. (2025). Effects of irrigation regimes on

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