INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,  
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)  
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue V, May 2026  
Lean Implementation and OrganisationalAgility: The Mediating Role of  
Continuous Improvement Culture in Nigerian Manufacturing Firms  
Olatunbosun Monsuru Alani1, Adebola Olateju Lukmon2 , Bolaji Seun Abdulrahman3 ,Adedamola  
Mohammed Akande4  
1D.S. Adegbenro ICT Polythechnic, General Studies Unit.  
2 D.S. Adegbenro ICT Polythechnic, Department of Marketing  
3D.S. Adegbenro ICT Polythechnic, Department of Marketing  
4D.S. Adegbenro ICT Polythechnic, Department of Accountancy  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150500176  
Received: 11 May 2026; Accepted: 16 May 2026; Published: 11 June 2026  
ABSTRACT  
This study investigates the relationship between lean implementation (LI) and organisational agility (OA) in  
Nigerian manufacturing firms, with a focus on the mediating role of continuous improvement culture (CIC).  
Drawing upon the dynamic capabilities and organization culture perspectives, we argue that lean practices  
provide process discipline and visibility, while a culture of continuous improvement transforms these practices  
into adaptive organisational capabilities. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey of 54 listed  
manufacturing firms. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to test the  
proposed model. The findings indicate that LI has a significant positive effect on OA, and CIC mediates this  
relationship. The study concludes that lean practices enhance agility most effectively when accompanied by  
strong learning and improvement-oriented cultures. Implications for managers and policy makers are discussed.  
Keywords: Lean manufacturing, organisational agility, continuous improvement, dynamic capabilities, Nigeria,  
PLS-SEM  
INTRODUCTION  
In the current unstable manufacturing environment, which is characterised by intense global competition,  
demand variability, supply chain disruptions and technological shifts, manufacturing companies are under  
increasing pressure to improve their operational efficiency in order to maintain profitability and sustain growth  
(Agbionu & Mbagwu, 2025). The competitive environment has changed significantly as a result of market  
globalisation, technological innovation, and volatile socioeconomic conditions, requiring businesses to be more  
adaptable and agile (Animashaun, Akeke, Imaila, & Yousouph-Adeyi, 2024). These difficulties are compounded  
for businesses in developing nations like Nigeria by infrastructure limitations, fluctuating exchange rates and  
inconsistent policies. Manufacturing companies must be agile to survive and thrive, not just efficient, agility is  
the ability to see, react and quickly adapt to changes in the environment. In this regard, they need tactics that  
could improve product quality, minimise operational costs and accelerate delivery schedules (Elunem et al.,  
2023). And to increase productivity and operational excellence, many businesses have applied lean  
methodologies in their manufacturing operations as indicated in many previous studies (Ajit, Birhane & Moti,  
2025).  
Bamisaye, Oroye, Farayibi, Adeitan, and Agbo (2023) claim that lean management implementation tools are  
standard operating systems that are evolved from the Toyota Production System (TPS). The lean philosophy  
emphasizes waste elimination, continuous flow, employee empowerment, and customer value maximization  
through methods like Just-in-Time (JIT) production, total quality management, total production maintenance,  
Poka-yoke, 5S, setup time reduction, value stream mapping, Kanban pull system, Takt time, kaizen (continuous  
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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue V, May 2026  
improvement), staff training, teamwork, and value stream mapping (Agbionu & Mbagwu, 2025; Bamisaye,  
Oroye, Farayibi, Adeitan & Agbo (2023). Ajit et al. (2025) state that waste removal, continuous improvement,  
respect for people and their components, timely output, adherence to standard procedure, error proofing, and  
defect discovery are examples of lean management techniques for manufacturing organizations.  
Several previous studies have shown how companies use the lean manufacturing method as a strategy to increase  
productivity and efficiency in their manufacturing processes. Customer satisfaction, productivity, and business  
effectiveness have all increased with this strategy (Olu-Lawal, Ekemezie & Usiagu, 2024). To get a competitive  
advantage, businesses today use lean manufacturing practices (Bilal & Urooj, 2023).  
Despite its enormous appeal, studies have revealed that many industrial firms struggle to completely apply lean  
concepts, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria (Ding, Hernandez & Jane, 2023). However, research  
shows that lean's benefits extend beyond reducing costs and wasteful processes; they also include better  
inventory management, shorter operational cycle times, and increased flexibility, organizational productivity,  
and financial performance (Bamisaye et al., 2023). However, lean implementation often fails to provide  
sustained performance gains when the underlying culture of continuous improvement (CI) is not well  
implemented in the area of intellectual characteristics of human assets (Lim., Sabil & Othman, 2022). In an  
increasing amount of study on the connection between lean and culture, Miller, Cadden, Tang, and Humpheys  
(2018) suggested that businesses that concentrate on creating a suitable organizational culture while  
implementing lean methods will see better operational performance results. This raises an important question:  
By encouraging a culture of continuous improvement, can lean implementation increase organizational agility?  
In the face of uncertainty, organizational agility is regarded as a key strategy (Mekuri-Ndimele, 2025). The  
concept refers to the capability to sense, respond, and quickly adapt to changes in the external environment. In  
Nigeria’s industrial environment, where infrastructure is inadequate, policies are inconsistent and dependency  
on imports is high, businesses must be extraordinarily agile to thrive and survive (Mbagwu, 2025). However,  
lean concepts may not be sufficient to provide agility unless they are embedded in a culture that supports  
continuous learning and development (Cadden et al., 2020; Leksic et al. 2020). While it is successful, studies  
reveal that many companies find it difficult to implement lean principles especially in developing countries such  
as Nigeria (Ding, Hernandez & Jane, 2023).  
The combination function of lean methods with other elements such as organizational agility and continuous  
improvement culture, and the assessment of the overall influence of this on the sustainability performance of a  
firm, are little attended to (Hassan & Pasha, 2023).  
The gap between lean adoption and organizational performance outcomes has led to researchers exploring the  
underlying processes through which lean initiatives translate into sustainable agility and performance advantages  
(Mbaagwu, 2025). A suggested component of this relationship is the continuous improvement culture that drives  
learning, experimentation and process improvement at all levels of the organization (Lim, Sabil, & Othman,  
2022). Continuous improvement methods are associated with an organizational culture that embraces a variety  
of improvement activities that lead to success and lower failure rates. (Whalen, 2020)  
With an emphasis on the mediating function of continuous improvement culture, this study examines the  
relationship between lean implementation and organizational agility in Nigerian manufacturing organizations. It  
suggests that while lean methods offer the structural basis for efficiency, they can only result in long-term  
organizational agility when combined with a widespread culture of continual improvement.  
Statement of the Problem  
Lean implementation has been recognized worldwide as an enabler of efficiency and waste reduction however,  
its direct impact on organizational agility is still unascertained, especially in the context of emerging economies.  
Previous work has yielded conflicting results. There are studies that show the positive relation of lean and agility  
(Mbagwu, 2025), but there are also those that reveal the existence of implementation barriers, lack of fit in the  
organizational culture and human development policies that impede the translation of lean into strategic  
responsiveness (Austin & Adebayo, 2021).  
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Manufacturing companies in Nigeria have been seen to apply lean tools like 5S, Kaizen, Just-in-Time (JIT),  
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) individually and not as a system (Agbionu & Mbagwu, 2025). In an  
organization where there is no culture of continuous improvement, employees are often in resistant and results  
are short-lived. This leaves many businesses operationally sound but strategically rigid, unable to adapt to supply  
chain disruptions, market volatility, and technology advancements.  
By highlighting particular important predictors that may have been omitted, neglected, or overlooked in earlier  
research conducted in Lean implementations, this study sought to provide some clarity. Thus, the goal of this  
research was to determine how continuous improvement culture influences the relationship between  
organizational agility and lean deployment in manufacturing companies. By empirically investigating how  
continuous improvement culture mediates the relationship between lean adoption and organizational agility in  
Nigerian manufacturing organizations, the study fills in these gaps. Developing an integrative model for attaining  
both operational excellence and strategic flexibility in the industrial context requires an understanding of this  
mediation effect.  
Research Objectives  
This study's primary goal is to examine whether the presence of a continuous improvement culture mediates the  
relationship between lean implementation and organisational agility in Nigerian manufacturing companies.  
The specific objectives are to:  
1. Investigate the direct effect of lean implementation on organisational agility.  
2. Examine the influence of lean implementation on continuous improvement culture.  
3. Evaluate the impact of continuous improvement culture on organisational agility.  
Research Questions  
The following questions will be addressed by the study in order to fulfill its stated objectives:  
1. What is the relationship between lean implementation and organisational agility in Nigerian  
manufacturing firms?  
2. How does lean implementation influence the development of continuous improvement culture?  
3. In what ways does continuous improvement culture affect organisational agility?  
4. Does the culture of continuous improvement mediate the relationship between organizational agility and  
lean implementation?  
Scope of the Study  
The study's population consists of all Nigerian manufacturing firms. However, the study concentrated on listed  
manufacturing companies on the Nigerian Exchange Group (NGX) due to the impracticability of examining  
every manufacturing company. These companies represent a number of industry subsectors, such as consumer  
goods, industrial products, cement, and food and beverage. The sample's representativeness is enhanced by  
concentrating on listed manufacturing companies because these businesses are well-known for their lean  
adoption initiatives, have solid financial records, and are major participants in their respective industries. Lean  
implementation (measured by just-in-time (JIT)), total quality management (TQM, 5s, kaizen), organizational  
agility (strategic responsiveness, flexibility, and adaptability), and continuous improvement culture (employee  
involvement, learning orientation, and openness to change) are the variables of interest.  
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LITERATURE REVIEW  
According to a survey of relevant literature, the majority of research studies have shown connections between  
organizational agility, lean implementation, and continuous improvement culture from various angles.  
Nevertheless, it was discovered that the connections between organizational agility, lean implementation, and  
continuous improvement culture have not been fully investigated. Furthermore, not much research has been done  
on how continuous improvement mediates the relationship between organizational agility and lean  
implementation in Nigerian manufacturing organizations. Academics from a variety of disciplines are becoming  
more interested in this field of study. This research, therefore, recognized the necessity to empirically determine  
the variables for sustainability of lean implementation.  
Conceptualization and Hypotheses Proposition  
Research Model  
Figure 1 was developed by the author to demonstrate the assumed connection among the three constructs in this  
study namely; lean implementation; organisational agility; and continuous improvement. In figure 1,  
organisational agility is a dependent variable, while lean implementation and continuous improvement are  
independent variables. Lean implementation and continuous improvement culture are expected to be  
significantly related, both are also assumed to significantly influence organisational agility.  
Figure 1: Hypothesised Model of Lean Implementation and Organisational Agility: A Mediating Role of  
Continuous Improvement Culture in Nigerian Manufacturing Firms  
Lean Implementation and Organisational Agility  
Lean manufacturing, according to Olu-Lawal, Ekemezie, and Usiagu (2024), is a set of methods and concepts  
intended to lessen uncertainty, get rid of waste, and guarantee efficient process flow. The literature claims that  
in order to increase the company's manufacturing capacity, reduce waste, and improve its financial performance,  
a number of manufacturing tools, techniques, and methodologies were developed, assessed, and suggested. Just-  
in-time (JIT), Poka-yoke, kaban, total quality management (TQM), employee involvement, visual management,  
and supplier integration are some of the lean manufacturing strategies that have been shown to have a significant  
manufacturing influence on business performance (Hassan & Pasha, 2023). By reducing process bottlenecks and  
improving information flow, lean systems can enable faster problem detection and resolution, leading to  
enhanced agility (Mbagwu, 2025).  
Organizational agility originated in the manufacturing sector, as the literature analysis revealed. According to  
Zitkiene and Deksyns (2018), it was described as a manufacturing system that can quickly switch between  
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products in real time to fulfill the demands of a changing marketplace. Agile manufacturing is thought to be the  
next development in production methodology, following Lean manufacturing. According to ElBadaway, Amr,  
Farouk, Talaat, Walid, and AbdelRaheem (2024), agile manufacturing is an approach to manufacturing that  
focuses on satisfying customer wants while upholding high standards of quality and controlling the total costs  
associated in the manufacture of a certain product. This strategy is intended for businesses operating in fiercely  
competitive markets where minor differences in product delivery and performance can have a significant impact  
on a company's long-term survival and customer reputation (Mbagwu, 2025). According to Agbionu and  
Mbagwu (2025), agility is a comprehensive strategy aimed at thriving in an unpredictable and rapidly changing  
environment.  
According to Narkhede, Raut, Roy, Yadav & Gardas (2020) and Ding, Hernandex, and Jane (2023), many  
manufacturing companies integrate both lean and agile systems into their manufacturing processes in order to  
reduce waste, shorten customer lead times, and boost productivity. The hybrid Lean-Agile framework, according  
to Serrador & Pinto, 2023, combines Agile techniques with Lean Manufacturing concepts to produce an all-  
encompassing strategy for process optimization and operational effectiveness. According to Helmalatha,  
Sankaranarayanasamy & Durairaaj (2021), lean and agile manufacturing are essential for improving the  
production process in order to compete in a digital and dynamic world.  
Organizational agility has become the essential mindset for success in today's quickly changing business  
environment. Businesses must embrace agility as a key component of their strategy in order to guarantee long-  
term success. The underline hypothesis was developed as a result of this study's findings:  
H1: Lean implementation has a positive effect on organisational agility.  
Lean Implementation and Continuous Improvement Culture  
Lean is about developing and enhancing reliable, predictable systems and procedures to provide clients with  
high-quality goods or services on schedule by including all members of the company. Furthermore, companies  
must foster an atmosphere that encourages employee participation and ongoing education (Protzman, Whiton &  
Kerpcher, 2022). A continuous improvement culture, according to Kaizen Institute, motivates staff members to  
actively look for ways to improve procedures, goods, and services. Organizations can leverage the combined  
thoughts and creativity of their staff to achieve sustained growth and success by encouraging cooperation and  
open communication. The emphasis on continuous improvement, which is frequently operationalized in the  
context of Kaizen and entails improving performance in numerous small, incremental steps involving everyone  
in a company, is a fundamental aspect of lean philosophy (Nwatu, 2024).  
According to Nganga & Nyaga (2022), managers' and employees' participation in continuous improvement  
initiatives can be a strategic instrument for enhancing and preserving competitive advantage by leveraging their  
expertise and involvement to raise an organization's overall performance level. Therefore, the implementation  
of continuous improvement has enormous and noteworthy advantages since it doesn't take a lot of capital,  
making it easy to use employees' skills (Nganga & Nyaga, 2022). Continuous improvement is essentially the  
widespread participation of workers in improvement procedures.  
A culture of continuous improvement that emphasizes learning, experimentation, and group problem solving is  
fostered by effective lean implementation. The organizational performance of Nigerian manufacturing  
companies has been demonstrated to be impacted by continuous improvement approaches, according to  
Animashaun et al. (2024). Consequently, the following hypothesis was developed for testing.  
H2: Lean implementation has a positive effect on continuous improvement culture.  
Continuous Improvement Culture and Organisational Agility  
The capacity of an organization to quickly adjust and change in response to shifts in the market, technology, and  
client needs is known as organizational agility. It involves utilizing a variety of adaptable tactics, structures,  
procedures, and a continual development culture to move swiftly and effortlessly (Anderson, 2024). Conversely,  
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continuous improvement is the process of continuously looking for methods to improve operations, processes,  
services, and goods. It's about producing tiny, gradual improvements that add up to big breakthroughs  
(Agilemania, 2025). A company's capacity to adjust to changes in the environment is improved by a culture that  
encourages ongoing learning, experimentation, and knowledge exchange. Sensing agility (via feedback  
systems), decision agility (through empowerment and cooperation), and execution agility (through iterative  
learning and quick reconfiguration) are all facilitated by a culture of continuous development.  
In today's fast-paced business climate, integrating agile approaches into organizational culture has become  
important for promoting innovation, adaptation, and continuous development. But establishing a set of tools or  
procedures is not enough to achieve long-term success with agile methodologies; the firm as a whole must  
undergo a profound culture shift. Teams must be encouraged to collaborate, take ownership of their processes,  
and be adaptable in the face of new knowledge or challenges in order to foster an agile mentality (Adebayo,  
2022). Therefore, an organization's capacity to connect its cultural values with the concepts of agility is crucial  
to the success of agile adoption. Lean systems can facilitate quicker problem identification and resolution,  
resulting in increased agility, by lowering process bottlenecks and enhancing information flow. As a result, the  
following hypothesis was created:  
H3: Continuous improvement culture has a positive effect on organisational agility.  
Mediating Role of Continuous Improvement Culture  
According to Kolocha and Anugwu (2022), lean manufacturing is a methodical approach to identifying and  
eliminating waste in operations through continuous improvement to do everything more efficiently, lower  
operating system costs, and satisfy customers' desire for maximum value at the lowest price. Lean  
implementation offers discipline and structure, but these practices become ingrained and self-sustaining through  
a culture of continuous improvement. We propose that the relationship between lean implementation and  
organizational agility is mediated by continuous improvement culture. This is because when people internalize  
improvement as part of their everyday work, the organization develops agility by continuously modifying  
processes to changing conditions.  
According to Novkov (2020), developing the capacity for ongoing improvement is essential to guaranteeing that  
teams have an agile experience. You must make a commitment to ongoing development if you claim to be  
genuinely agile. To guarantee long-term benefits, manufacturing companies using true lean thinking must take  
waste reduction and long-term value generation into account. Additionally, since prior research has demonstrated  
the connection between organizational agility and lean implementation, successful continuous improvement  
initiatives eventually result in positive Lean implementations (Tan, Lim, Ong, Goh & Choi, 2019). As a result,  
continuous improvement enables the maintenance of organizational agility. It makes sense that in manufacturing  
companies, the relationship between lean adoption and organizational agility is mediated via continuous  
improvement. These results reinforced the idea that a culture of continuous improvement is crucial in mediating  
the relationship between lean implementation and organizational agility. As a result, the following hypothesis  
was developed for testing:  
H4: Continuous improvement culture mediates the relationship between lean implementation and organisational  
agility.  
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK  
This study makes use of the dynamic capabilities view (DCV) as the theoretical framework underpinning this  
study.  
Theory of Dynamic Capabilities (DCT)  
The dynamic capabilities view is a strategic management theory that contends that a company's ability to adapt  
and respond to a changing environment is crucial to obtaining a long-term competitive advantage (Cavusgil and  
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Daeligonul, 2024). This thesis states that for businesses to remain competitive, they must be able to grow,  
restructure, and adapt (Hutchison, 2024).  
Understanding dynamic capabilities is crucial to comprehending the nature of organisational agility since the  
dimensions of organisational agility encompass a range of dynamic capabilities. Hutchison (2024) claims that  
the theory identifies three interrelated capabilities: the capacity to swiftly discover new strategic assets within  
the company and the capacity to modify existing assets to satisfy evolving needs. According to Baskarada &  
Koronios (2018), these abilities are essential for businesses to thrive in the face of change because they promote  
responsiveness and agility.  
Lean management and dynamic capabilities (DC) are two strategy frameworks that companies use to increase  
their competitiveness and adaptability in a fast-paced, increasingly complicated business environment (Uwa,  
2024). An organization's "dynamic capabilities" include its ability to identify opportunities and threats, seize  
those possibilities, and realign resources and procedures to maintain a competitive edge (Uwa, 2024). On the  
other hand, lean management emphasises continual improvement, streamlines operations, and reduces waste in  
order to maximise value to the client. Lean management and dynamic capabilities are very relevant since they  
both emphasise the importance of flexibility and change management. In addition to allowing businesses to  
achieve and sustain operational excellence through continuous innovation and evolution, this combination  
guarantees long-term competitiveness and resilience (Nganga & Nyaga, 2022).  
In conclusion, lean management techniques and the concepts of Dynamic Capabilities Theory are strongly  
related. Lean management helps businesses prosper in a changing business environment by encouraging  
flexibility, ongoing learning, resource optimisation, strategic alignment, resilience, customer focus, and  
teamwork (Uwa, 2024).  
Empirical Review  
Uchenna & Ezenwoke (2025) examined the effects of a hybrid lean-agile framework on operational efficiency  
in manufacturing companies, concentrating on Cadbury Nigeria Plc in Lagos. The study employed a mixed-  
method approach, combining quantitative data from official surveys with qualitative material from 260  
employees' semi-structured interviews. Descriptive analysis, regression, and correlation were used. The study's  
conclusions indicate that the Hybrid Lean-Agile Framework significantly improves operational effectiveness  
and offers a practical paradigm for companies functioning in unpredictable and resource-constrained  
environments.  
Similarly, Uwa (2024) carried out an empirical study in Akwa Ibom that examined the competitive advantage  
of businesses and lean management techniques. This study used a survey research approach to explore the  
association between lean practices and firms' competitive advantage in a subset of firms in Akwa Ibom State.  
Based on the data gathered, hypotheses were assessed using the analysis's ordinal regression tool. The findings  
demonstrated a strong relationship between the Lean Management dimension (employee involvement, Just-in-  
Time) and the competitive advantage of enterprises in Akwa Ibom State. Just-in-time and employee involvement  
are relational characteristics that could improve firms' competitive edge and organisational performance in Akwa  
Ibom State.  
Njoroge & Nyaga (2022) investigated the relationship between the performance of Nairobi Bottlers Limited and  
measures for continuous improvement. The analysis of the study made use of inferential statistics and multiple  
regression. The study has shown that continuous improvements have an impact on the organisational  
performance of industrial businesses. According to the study's findings, manufacturing companies should strive  
to successfully add value for their customers while enabling their employees to contribute and realise their full  
potential.  
In their study "Lean Manufacturing Approach and Operational Efficiency of Nigerian Pharmaceutical  
Companies in Anambra State," Okolocha & Anugwu (2022) validated lean business strategy as a management  
technique that could help Nigerian manufacturing companies reposition their business processes in order to  
optimize resources, reduce operational costs, become responsive, flexible, and customer-focused. The study used  
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a descriptive survey research approach, and SPSS version 20.0 was used to analyze the data using the T-test  
statistical tool at the 5% significant level.  
Austin & Adebayo (2021) investigated how people and the duality of lean impact lean deployment in businesses  
using Irish food processing manufacturing companies as a case study. Using data from 340 surveys from Irish  
food processing industries, the study employed structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). Lean adoption may  
be hampered by inadequate organisational communication techniques, organisational culture, organisational  
knowledge, managerial support, and human development policies, according to the study. The study concludes  
that there is no one-size-fits-all method for applying lean; rather, the presence or lack of the aforementioned  
components can either facilitate or impede the use of lean, especially in Irish food processing manufacturing  
businesses.  
Last but not least, attempts for continuous improvement frequently have a high failure rate. However, research  
often focuses on success factors rather than directly addressing failures. McLeana, Antonya, and Dahlgaard  
(2016) looked at the failure of continuous improvement projects in manufacturing environments. The study's  
objective was to provide a thorough summary of the literature outlining the reasons why Continuous  
Improvement initiatives might not be successful in manufacturing settings. The findings highlight the challenges  
of implementing Continuous Improvement inside a company.  
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  
Research Design and Sample  
The study examined how the culture of continuous improvement mediates the relationship between  
organisational agility and lean implementation in Nigerian manufacturing companies using a quantitative  
research methodology and a survey design approach to enable the generalisation of the results to the entire  
population of the study. Manufacturing companies listed with the Nigerian Exchange Group (NGX) made up  
the population. Both primary and secondary sources were used to generate the data. The chosen companies  
within the listed manufacturing firms provided primary data.  
The study's target population consisted of 270 workers from 54 listed manufacturing companies on the Nigeria  
Stock Exchange (NSE), including managers of operations, production, quality, and two supervisors. Operations,  
production, and quality managers as well as two supervisors from each division of the participating companies  
were given a standardised questionnaire. Supervisors were asked to complete the questionnaires in situations  
where it was difficult to get in touch with the company's managers because they are directly involved in the  
operating system and also keep an eye on production activities.  
The sample size was 161 respondents calculated using Taro Yammane (1967) statistical formula.  
n =  
N
=
270  
=
270  
=
270  
= 161  
(1 + Ne2)  
1 + 270(0.05)2  
1 + 270(0.0025)  
1.675  
Stratified and convenience sampling methods were used for sample selection. The firms were grouped under  
different industrial sector and selection was made based on the willingness of the firm to participate.  
3.2 Data Collection  
Data collection was via 5-point Likert scale questionnaires that were administered to 5 key personnel in each of  
these organizations that participated. Of the 161 questionnaires distributed, 153 valid responses were received  
(66.4% response rate). Respondents represented various sectors: Consumer goods (28%), Industrial goods  
(26%), Healthcare (18%), and others (28%).  
3.3 Measures  
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All constructs were measured using validated scales on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree;  
3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree). Items were adapted from prior studies (Lim, Sabi and Othman (2022).  
Lean Implementation (LI):  
Measured as a second-order reflective construct with dimensions; Just-in-time (JIT), Workplace organization  
(WPO), and management commitment (TQM)  
Continuous Improvement Culture (CI):  
This measured with items capturing learning orientation, problem-solving routines, leadership support for  
improvement, and psychological safety.  
Organisational Agility (OA):  
A second-order reflective construct measured through three dimensions; sensing capability, responding  
capability, and transforming capability.  
Data Analysis  
Measurement Model  
Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via SmartPLS 4. The  
choice of PLS-SEM was due to its suitability for complex models and prediction-oriented research. The  
measurement model was evaluated to establish the reliability and validity of the latent constructs prior to  
examining the structural relationships. This is a necessary exercise in structural equation modeling in order to  
ensure that the indicators accurately and consistently represent their underlying constructs. In this study, the  
measurement model was assessed through internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant  
validity using established criteria.  
Internal consistency reliability was examined using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability measures (ρA  
and ρC). As shown in Table 1, Lean Implementation (LI) recorded a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.959, with  
composite reliability values of 0.960 (ρA) and 0.964 (ρC), indicating a very high level of internal consistency  
among its indicators. Similarly, Continuous Improvement Culture (CIC) demonstrated strong reliability, with a  
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.959 and composite reliability values of 0.959 (ρA) and 0.964 (ρC). Organisational Agility  
(OA) also exhibited excellent internal consistency reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.963, composite  
reliability (ρA) of 0.964, and composite reliability (ρC) of 0.967. All reported values substantially exceed the  
recommended minimum threshold of 0.70, thereby confirming the stability and reliability of the measurement  
scales used in this study.  
Convergent validity was assessed using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). As indicated in Table 1, Lean  
Implementation (LI) achieved an AVE value of 0.710, indicating that 71.0% of the variance in its indicators is  
explained by the construct.  
Continuous Improvement Culture (CIC) recorded an AVE of 0.730, demonstrating that 73.0% of the variance  
in its indicators is captured by the construct. Similarly, Organisational Agility (OA) exhibited an AVE value of  
0.712, confirming that 71.2% of the variance in its indicators is explained by the latent construct. All AVE values  
exceed the recommended minimum threshold of 0.50. This means that there is strong empirical evidence of  
convergent validity, confirming that the indicators converge adequately on their respective constructs.  
Table 1: Construct Reliability and Convergent Validity  
Construct Cronbach’s Alpha Composite Reliability (ρA) Composite Reliability (ρC) AVE  
CIC  
0.959  
0.959  
0.964  
0.730  
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LI  
0.959  
0.963  
0.960  
0.964  
0.964  
0.967  
0.710  
0.712  
OA  
Discriminant validity was examined using the indicator cross-loadings, the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT),  
and the Fornell-Larcker criterion, in line with recommended best practices for PLS-SEM. The cross-loading  
results indicate that each indicator loads more strongly on its respective construct than on any other construct.  
This pattern confirms that the indicators are appropriately specified and measure their intended latent variables  
without substantial overlap.  
Table 2: Discriminant Validity Assessment Using Cross-Loadings  
Indicator  
CIC1  
CIC10  
CIC2  
CIC3  
CIC4  
CIC5  
CIC6  
CIC7  
CIC8  
CIC9  
JIT1  
CIC  
LI  
OA  
0.871  
0.842  
0.851  
0.868  
0.825  
0.852  
0.840  
0.866  
0.873  
0.852  
0.548  
0.640  
0.584  
0.658  
0.630  
0.611  
0.648  
0.587  
0.536  
0.656  
0.660  
0.685  
0.648  
0.629  
0.625  
0.575  
0.579  
0.573  
0.595  
0.609  
0.615  
0.606  
0.613  
0.550  
0.600  
0.837  
0.836  
0.833  
0.569  
0.563  
0.558  
0.578  
0.539  
0.507  
0.602  
0.591  
0.618  
0.618  
0.579  
0.596  
0.599  
0.631  
0.661  
0.653  
0.628  
0.647  
0.637  
0.689  
0.596  
0.656  
0.567  
0.616  
0.544  
0.796  
0.790  
0.788  
0.854  
0.815  
0.800  
0.896  
0.874  
0.867  
0.874  
0.888  
0.870  
JIT2  
JIT3  
RC1  
RC2  
RC3  
SC1  
SC2  
SC3  
TC1  
TC2  
TC3  
TC4  
TC5  
TC6  
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TQM1  
TQM2  
TQM3  
TQM4  
TQM5  
WPO1  
WPO2  
WPO3  
0.574  
0.553  
0.589  
0.599  
0.584  
0.583  
0.554  
0.611  
0.860  
0.858  
0.842  
0.892  
0.863  
0.802  
0.832  
0.810  
0.592  
0.541  
0.584  
0.628  
0.599  
0.541  
0.579  
0.551  
In the same vein, as indicated in table 3, HTMT values for all construct pairs are found to be below the  
conservative threshold of 0.85, indicating adequate discriminant validity and confirming that the constructs do  
not exhibit problematic levels of similarity.  
Table 3. Discriminant Validity Assessment Using HTMT  
CIC  
—
LI  
OA  
CIC  
LI  
0.721  
0.778  
—
OA  
0.711  
—
The Fornell–Larcker criterion further supports discriminant validity. As shown in Table 4, the square root of the  
AVE for each construct (diagonal values) is greater than the correlations between that construct and the other  
constructs in the model.  
Table 4: Discriminant Validity Assessment Using the Fornell–Larcker Criterion  
CIC  
LI  
OA  
CIC  
LI  
0.854  
0.693  
0.750  
0.843  
0.685  
OA  
0.844  
Across the cross-loadings, HTMT, and the Fornell–Larcker criterion, discriminant validity is consistently  
supported. Each construct is empirically distinct, and the measurement model satisfies all recommended  
discriminant validity requirements.  
RESULTS  
Structural Model  
Following the establishment of a satisfactory measurement model, the structural model was assessed to examine  
the hypothesised relationships among Lean Implementation, Continuous Improvement Culture, and  
Organisational Agility. The evaluation focused on the magnitude, direction, and statistical significance of the  
structural path coefficients, as well as the mediating role of Continuous Improvement Culture.  
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Figure 2: PLS-SEM Structural Model with Path Coefficients and Significance Levels  
As shown in figure 2, the results of the direct relationships indicate that Lean Implementation has a strong and  
statistically significant positive effect on Continuous Improvement Culture. The path coefficient for LI → CIC  
is substantial (β = 0.693) and highly significant (t = 19.893, p < 0.001), suggesting that the adoption of lean  
practices strongly fosters a culture of continuous improvement within Nigerian manufacturing firms. Continuous  
Improvement Culture also exerts a significant positive influence on Organisational Agility (β = 0.530, t = 9.127,  
p < 0.001), indicating that organisations with stronger continuous improvement cultures are better able to sense,  
respond to, and transform in dynamic environments. In addition, Lean Implementation demonstrates a direct and  
statistically significant effect on Organisational Agility (β = 0.318, t = 4.890, p < 0.001), implying that lean  
practices enhance organisational agility beyond their indirect influence through culture.  
Table 5: Structural Model Path Coefficients  
Path  
Original Sample (β)  
Sample Mean  
0.695  
STDEV  
0.035  
T Statistic  
19.893  
9.127  
p-value  
0.000  
LI → CIC  
CIC → OA  
LI → OA  
0.693  
0.530  
0.318  
0.530  
0.058  
0.000  
0.319  
0.065  
4.890  
0.000  
The mediating role of Continuous Improvement Culture was assessed through the specific indirect effect of Lean  
Implementation on Organisational Agility via Continuous Improvement Culture. The results, presented in Table  
6, show that the indirect effect is positive and statistically significant (β = 0.367, t = 7.988, p < 0.001). This  
indicates that Continuous Improvement Culture plays a substantive role in transmitting the effect of Lean  
Implementation to Organisational Agility.  
Table 6: Specific Indirect Effect (Mediation Analysis)  
Indirect Path  
Original  
(β)  
Sample Sample  
Mean  
STDEV T Statistic p-  
value  
LI → CIC → OA 0.367  
0.368  
0.046  
7.988  
0.000  
Given that both the direct effect of Lean Implementation on Organisational Agility (β = 0.318, p < 0.001) and  
the indirect effect via Continuous Improvement Culture (β = 0.367, p < 0.001) are statistically significant, the  
findings indicate the presence of partial mediation. This implies that Lean Implementation enhances  
organisational agility both directly and indirectly through the establishment of a continuous improvement  
culture. Notably, the magnitude of the indirect effect exceeds that of the direct effect, suggesting that a  
considerable proportion of the influence of lean implementation on organisational agility is transmitted through  
continuous improvement culture, while the direct pathway remains substantively meaningful.  
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SUMMARY OF RESULTS  
Hypothesis  
Path  
Path  
(original  
β)  
coefficient T -Statistic  
p-Value  
Result  
Decision  
sample  
H1  
H2  
H3  
H4  
LI → OA  
LI → CIC  
CIC → OA  
0.318  
0.693  
0.530  
4.890  
19.893  
9.127  
7.988  
0.000  
0.000  
0.000  
0.000  
Significant  
Significant  
Significant  
Accepted  
Accepted  
Accepted  
Accepted  
LI → CIC → 0.367  
OA  
Significant  
(Partial  
mediation)  
DISCUSSION  
The primary aim of this study was to look at the mediating role of continuous improvement culture in the  
relationship between lean implementation and organisational agility in the Nigerian manufacturing firms. The  
analysis further addressed whether lean implementation and continuous improvement culture directly impact  
organisational agility in manufacturing firms.  
H1: The result indicates that Lean Implementation has a strong and statistically significant positive effect on  
Organisational Agility (β = 0.318, t = 4.890, p < 0.001. This also implies that lean practices enhance organisational  
agility in manufacturing firms, and shows a direct positive relationship. The results are consistent with Grace,  
Praise, and Dave (2025); Togun, Sobowale, and Udom (2024), that lean operations significantly improves agility  
through waste reduction, process standardization, and continuous improvement. Findings indicate that firms that  
successfully adopt lean principles experience higher responsiveness, improved process efficiency, and enhanced  
strategic flexibility.  
H2: The direct relationship indicates that Lean Implementation has a strong and statistically significant positive  
effect on Continuous Improvement Culture. The path coefficient for LI → CIC is substantial (β = 0.693) and  
highly significant (t = 19.893, p < 0.001), suggesting that the adoption of lean practices strongly fosters a culture  
of continuous improvement within Nigerian manufacturing firms. In Ghazali et al. (2025), the findings enhance  
lean theory by situating implementation within cultural frameworks and provide pragmatic assistance for  
managers aiming to harmonize lean strategies with local cultural characteristics in emerging nations. It becomes  
clear that lean manufacturing increases quality and productivity in companies and enables the establishment of a  
continuous improvement work methodology that invites the constant review of processes and consequently the  
culture of change and quality within companies (Solis-Quinteros, Zayas-Marques, Avila-Lopez & Carillo-  
Gutirrez, 2021).  
H3: Continuous Improvement Culture also exerts a significant positive influence on Organisational Agility (β =  
0.530, t = 9.127, p < 0.001), indicating that organisations with stronger continuous improvement cultures are  
better able to sense, respond to, and transform in dynamic environments. A robust Continuous improvement  
culture enhances sensing and adaptation capabilities, confirming the argument of Felipe et al. (2017). The  
findings may help managers to understand the importance of adapting their firm’s corporate culture to the  
aspiration of becoming more effective and agile. According to Temitope (2022), the success of agile  
implementation largely depends on the organisation’s ability to align its existing cultural values with the  
principles of agility.  
H4: The results of the hypothesis testing supported that Continuous Improvement Culture significantly mediated  
the relationship between Lean Implementation and Organisational Agility within Lean manufacturing firms in  
Nigeria (β = 0.367, 7.988, p < 0.001). The mediation results align with Cadden et al. (2020) and Lim et al. (2022),  
showing that continuous improvement culture is a vital link converting lean efficiency into strategic  
responsiveness.  
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Theoretical Implications  
The findings support the notion that lean manufacturing extends beyond efficiency gains to enable strategic  
agility. The study contributes to dynamic capabilities theory by empirically validating continuous improvement  
culture as a mediating organisational mechanism. The results align with prior research (Teece, 2007; Netland,  
2016), affirming that agility emerges not merely from process tools but from the learning routines that sustain  
adaptation.  
Managerial Implications  
1. Invest in People, Not Just Tools: Managers should complement lean tool deployment (e.g., JIT, 5S, Kanban)  
with structured problem-solving training and leadership behaviours that encourage experimentation.  
2. Develop Routine Learning Mechanisms: Regular Kaizen events, cross-functional meetings, and Gemba walks  
institutionalize continuous improvement and embed adaptability.  
3. Balance Standardisation and Flexibility: Visual management and standard work should be designed to reveal  
problems quickly, not suppress deviation.  
4. Foster Supplier Collaboration: Strengthening supplier integration enhances responsiveness to market changes.  
5. Leadership Commitment: Agility requires leaders who champion learning, reward experimentation, and model  
continuous improvement behaviours.  
Policy Implications  
Government agencies and industry associations e.g., Manufacturing Association of Nigeria (MAN), Bank of  
Industry (BOI) can promote agility by supporting SME-focused lean and continuous improvement capability  
building programs, integrating improvement routines into national industrial development policies.  
CONCLUSION  
This study provides empirical evidence that lean implementation enhances organisational agility among Nigerian  
manufacturing firms and that this effect is partially mediated by a continuous improvement culture. The findings  
underscore that lean success depends not merely on adopting tools but on embedding a learning-oriented culture.  
In resource-constrained environments, continuous improvement routines serve as adaptive mechanisms that  
enable firms to respond swiftly to change.  
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