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ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue VI, June 2026
Integrated Renewable Hydrogen and Electric Mobility for Grid
Flexibility: A Sector-Coupled Framework for Developing
Economies
Joseph Levodo*, Festus Osamede, Fuhad Bankole
Department of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Greater Manchester, Uk
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150600104
Received: 24 June 2026; Accepted: 29 June 2026; Published: 11 July 2026
ABSTRACT
Developing economies face a dual challenge of rapidly increasing transportation demand and the urgent need
to decarbonize energy systems. While renewable energy deployment is accelerating globally, the intermittent
nature of solar and wind generation presents significant challenges for grid stability and reliability.
Simultaneously, transportation sectors remain heavily dependent on fossil fuels, contributing substantially to
greenhouse gas emissions.
This paper proposes a sector-coupled energy infrastructure framework that integrates renewable hydrogen
production, electric mobility systems, and smart grid technologies to enhance grid flexibility and accelerate
the transition toward net-zero transportation in developing economies. The framework leverages surplus
renewable electricity for hydrogen production through electrolysis while utilising electric vehicles (EVs) as
distributed energy storage resources through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies. By coupling power,
transportation, and hydrogen sectors, the proposed model addresses renewable energy curtailment, grid
balancing, energy security, and transportation decarbonisation simultaneously.
The study examines technological pathways, infrastructure requirements, policy mechanisms, and economic
considerations for implementation. The proposed framework demonstrates how integrated hydrogen-electric
mobility systems may improve renewable energy utilisation, reduce grid congestion, enhance system
resilience, and support sustainable economic development through coordinated sector coupling between
power, transport, and hydrogen systems. The paper concludes by outlining strategic recommendations for
policymakers and stakeholders seeking to establish flexible, low-carbon transportation and energy
infrastructures in developing economies.
Keywords: Renewable hydrogen, Electric mobility, Grid flexibility, Net-zero transportation, Developing
economies
INTRODUCTION
Global efforts to achieve climate neutrality have increased the need for integrated solutions that
simultaneously decarbonise energy and transportation sectors. Transportation accounts for approximately
one-quarter of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, with developing economies experiencing rapid growth
in vehicle ownership and energy demand.
Although many of these regions have abundant renewable resources, particularly solar and wind, they face
challenges such as grid instability, infrastructure limitations, and energy access constraints [1] The increasing
penetration of renewable energy introduces variability, often leading to curtailment and inefficiencies.
Conventional approaches relying on grid expansion or standalone storage solutions are frequently cost-
prohibitive. In response, sector coupling has emerged as a promising strategy for enhancing system flexibility
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by integrating electricity, transport, and hydrogen systems [2]. Renewable hydrogen provides long-duration
energy storage, particularly for hard-to-electrify transport sectors, while electric vehicles (EVs) offer short-
term flexibility through smart charging and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities.
The integration of these systems enables complementary benefits, combining short-term battery storage with
long-term hydrogen storage. Despite growing research, the application of integrated sector-coupled systems
in developing economies remains limited. This paper addresses this gap by proposing a unified framework
that integrates renewable energy generation, hydrogen production and storage, and electric mobility systems
with V2G capability.
The framework aims to enhance grid flexibility, improve renewable energy utilisation, and support the
transition towards net-zero transportation systems [3] While previous studies have investigated renewable
hydrogen systems, electric mobility, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technologies independently, limited attention
has been given to their coordinated integration within a unified framework for developing economies.
The novelty of this study lies in the integration of short-duration flexibility provided by EV batteries and
long-duration flexibility provided by renewable hydrogen storage within a single sector-coupled architecture.
Furthermore, the framework is demonstrated using complementary case studies from Kenya and South
Africa, highlighting practical pathways for renewable energy integration, transport decarbonisation, and grid
flexibility in developing economy contexts.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study adopts a conceptual framework methodology to investigate the integration of renewable
electricity, hydrogen production, and electric mobility for enhancing grid flexibility in developing
economies. Rather than employing numerical optimisation or software-based simulation, the research
develops an analytical framework through a comprehensive review of recent literature published between
2020 and 2025 on renewable hydrogen, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, electric mobility, and sector
coupling.
Based on this review, an integrated sector-coupled architecture linking renewable electricity generation,
electrolysis, hydrogen storage, electric vehicle charging, V2G operation, and the electricity grid was
developed. Mathematical equations describing the energy flows among these subsystems were formulated
using established energy balance relationships reported in the literature to illustrate the interactions between
renewable generation, hydrogen production, electricity demand, and EV operation. To demonstrate the
practical application of the proposed framework, representative operational scenarios based on publicly
available information from Kenya and South Africa were incorporated. The numerical values presented are
illustrative and derived from representative renewable generation and electricity demand profiles reported in
the literature; they are intended to demonstrate the operation of the proposed framework rather than represent
outputs from numerical simulation or optimisation software.
The numerical values used in this study are derived from representative ranges reported in recent literature
and publicly available data sources. Solar irradiance and renewable generation profiles are based on typical
values observed in Sub-Saharan Africa, while electricity demand patterns and electric vehicle charging
behaviour are informed by existing studies on developing economies, including Kenya and South Africa.
Electrolyser efficiency, hydrogen energy content, and system parameters are selected based on commonly
reported values in hydrogen energy research. These assumptions are intended to provide realistic and
representative conditions for illustrating the operation of the proposed framework, rather than serving as site-
specific or optimised results.
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Sector-Coupled Energy System Architecture
The proposed framework integrates renewable power generation, hydrogen production and storage, and
electric mobility with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capability into a unified energy system designed to enhance grid
flexibility and support net-zero transportation in developing economies [4].
Figure 1. Sector-coupled system architecture
The diagram is a conceptual representation developed by the authors based on established sector coupling
principles reported in recent literature, illustrating the main energy flows and system components. The
primary interactions include conversion of surplus renewable energy into hydrogen via electrolysis, EV
charging from renewable power, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) discharge to support the grid, and electricity
generation from stored hydrogen using fuel cells. The combination of short-duration storage (EV batteries)
and long-duration storage (hydrogen systems) provides a multi-layered flexibility mechanism capable of
addressing both short-term fluctuations and long-term variability. During high renewable generation, excess
energy is allocated to EV charging and hydrogen production. During low generation periods, stored energy
is supplied through V2G operation and hydrogen fuel cells, supporting demand and reducing reliance on
conventional generation. System operation is coordinated by an Energy Management System (EMS), which
optimises energy flows between generation, storage, and demand in real time. Overall Energy Balance of the
Sector-Coupled System.
Equation (1)
P_RE + P_V2G + P_FC = P_D + P_EL + P_EV + P_loss
Where P_RE represents the total renewable power generation (kW), P_V2G is the power supplied from
electric vehicles to the grid through vehicle-to-grid operation (kW), and P_FC denotes the fuel cell power
output (kW). On the demand side, P_D represents the total electricity demand (kW), P_EL is the power
consumed by the electrolyser during hydrogen production (kW), and P_EV denotes the electric vehicle
charging demand (kW), while P_loss accounts for system losses (kW). Equation (1) represents the overall
energy balance of the proposed sector-coupled system. The total renewable power generated is allocated
among grid demand, hydrogen production through electrolysis, EV charging demand, and system losses. The
Energy Management System (EMS) continuously regulates these energy flows to maximise renewable
energy utilisation while maintaining system stability and reliability. However, implementation requires
advanced control strategies and significant infrastructure investment, particularly for hydrogen and V2G
systems [5]
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Renewable Power Generation (Solar and Wind Systems)
Renewable power generation within the proposed framework is primarily derived from solar and wind energy
sources. These resources are widely available in many developing regions and are increasingly deployed due
to their low operating costs, environmental sustainability, and scalability [6]. However, their inherent
variability necessitates robust energy management and storage strategies. The total renewable power output
at any time is expressed as:
Equation (2)
P_RE = P_PV + P_Wind
Where
is the total renewable power generation,
is solar PV output, and
is wind
power output (kW). This equation represents the combined contribution of solar and wind resources,
providing a more stable power supply by reducing individual variability.
Solar Power Model
Solar power generation within the system is modelled as a function of solar irradiance and photovoltaic (PV)
system efficiency. The output power from the PV system at time is expressed as:
Equation (3)
P_PV = η_PV × A × I
Where η_PV represents the photovoltaic conversion efficiency (–), A denotes the surface area of the solar
panel (m²), and I represent the solar irradiance incident on the panel (W/m²). Solar output depends on these
parameters, with irradiance variations leading to fluctuating power generation [7]
Wind Power Model
Wind power generation within the proposed system is modelled based on the kinetic energy of moving air,
which is converted into mechanical and subsequently electrical energy by the turbine. The instantaneous
power output from a wind turbine at time is given by:
Equation (4)
P_Wind = 1/2 × ρ × A × C_p × V^3
Where ρ represents the air density (kg/m³), A denotes the swept area of the wind turbine (m²), C_p is the
power coefficient indicating the efficiency of the turbine (–), and V represents the wind speed (m/s).Wind
power depends on these parameters, with wind speed variability contributing to intermittent generation [8]
Intermittency and Energy Management
Due to the inherent variability of solar and wind resources, renewable power generation within the system is
highly intermittent [9] as a result, there are periods when renewable energy supply exceeds demand and
periods when it is insufficient to meet system requirements [10]. Effective energy management strategies are
therefore essential to ensure system stability and reliability.
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Surplus Generation Condition
A surplus condition occurs when renewable generation exceeds total system demand
Equation (5)
P_RE > P_D + P_EV
Under surplus conditions, excess energy is allocated by the EMS to battery storage (including EVs), hydrogen
production via electrolysis, grid export, or flexible loads to minimise curtailment.
Deficit Generation Condition
A deficit condition arises when renewable generation is insufficient to meet demand:
Equation (6)
P_RE < P_D + P_EV
Under deficit conditions, the EMS maintains system balance by utilising stored energy from EVs (via V2G)
and hydrogen systems (via fuel cells), alongside grid imports or backup generation if required.
Role of Energy Storage and Management
These alternating surplus and deficit conditions highlight the critical importance of Energy Storage Systems
(ESS) and intelligent energy management. Short-term storage (EV batteries) provides rapid response for peak
demand and load balancing, while long-term storage [11] supports sustained energy supply during extended
periods of low renewable generation [12]. The Energy Management System continuously monitors system
conditions and dynamically allocates energy flows to optimise performance, minimise curtailment, and
ensure reliable operation of the sector-coupled energy system.
Graphical Representation
Below is a 24-hour Representative 24-hour renewable power profile showing solar, wind, and total
renewable power:
Figure 2. Representative 24-hour renewable power generation profile.
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The profile is based on typical solar irradiance and wind generation patterns reported for Sub-Saharan Africa.
Power values are representative and used to illustrate daily variability rather than site-specific measurements.
The horizontal axis represents time (hours), while the vertical axis represents power output (kW).
Solar output follows a typical diurnal pattern, peaking at midday and falling to zero at night, while wind
generation remains variable but continuous throughout the day. The combined renewable output highlights
the complementary nature of solar and wind resources, resulting in a more stable overall power supply.
Periods of surplus generation occur during midday, while deficits arise during evening and low-wind
conditions.
These variations emphasise the need for energy storage and management strategies, where surplus energy
can be stored in EV batteries or converted into hydrogen, and deficits are met through V2G discharge and
fuel cell operation. Overall, the results demonstrate that integrating multiple renewable sources and storage
technologies improves system stability and supports the effectiveness of the proposed sector-coupled
framework.
Hydrogen Production and Storage Subsystem
The hydrogen subsystem provides long-duration energy storage by converting surplus renewable electricity
into hydrogen through electrolysis. This process reduces renewable energy curtailment and enables energy
to be stored in chemical form for later use, addressing the intermittency of solar and wind resources [13].
Stored hydrogen can be utilised for electricity generation via fuel cells, transportation particularly for heavy-
duty applications—and various industrial processes. Within the proposed framework, hydrogen complements
short-term storage provided by electric vehicle batteries by offering high-capacity, long-term energy
buffering. This integration enhances overall system flexibility and resilience, making hydrogen particularly
suitable for large-scale, renewable-based energy systems in developing economies.
Electrolysis Process
The hydrogen production process in the proposed system is based on water electrolysis, an electrochemical
reaction that uses electrical energy to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
The overall electrochemical reaction is expressed as:
This reaction demonstrates the conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy stored in hydrogen
molecules. The hydrogen produced can then be stored and utilised at a later stage.
Hydrogen Production Rate
The rate of hydrogen production during electrolysis is given by:
Equation (7)
ṁ_H2 = (η_EL × P_EL) / LHV_H2
Where ṁ_H2 represents the hydrogen production rate (kg/s), η_EL denotes the efficiency of the electrolyser
(–), P_EL is the electrical power input to the electrolyser (kW), and LHV_H2 represents the lower heating
value of hydrogen (kWh/kg).Hydrogen production depends on electrical input, system efficiency, and
hydrogen energy content. Higher efficiency improves conversion performance, while lower efficiency
increases energy requirements. During surplus renewable conditions, electricity can be directed to
electrolysis to produce hydrogen for long-term storage and utilisation.
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Energy Storage Function
Hydrogen storage provides long-duration, high-capacity energy storage, enabling energy to be preserved over
extended periods and addressing seasonal variability in renewable generation. Within the proposed
framework, hydrogen serves multiple functions, including energy buffering during low-generation periods,
fuel supply for transportation (particularly heavy-duty applications), and integration across power, transport,
and industrial sectors.
Stored Hydrogen Energy
The amount of energy stored in hydrogen is given by:
Equation (8)
E_H2 = m_H2 × LHV_H2
Where E_H2 represents the stored hydrogen energy (kWh), m_H2 denotes the mass of hydrogen (kg), and
LHV_H2 is the lower heating value of hydrogen (kWh/kg).Where
is the total stored hydrogen energy
(kWh),
is the hydrogen mass (kg), and
is its lower heating value (kWh/kg). This equation
represents the chemical energy stored in hydrogen, which is directly proportional to the hydrogen mass. As
storage increases, the system builds a long-term energy reserve.
Fuel Cell Energy Recovery
Stored hydrogen can be reconverted into electricity using a fuel cell during periods when renewable
generation is insufficient to satisfy electricity demand. Within the proposed sector-coupled framework, fuel
cells provide long-duration backup power by converting the chemical energy stored in hydrogen into
electrical energy. This process complements vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems, which primarily provide short-
term grid support, thereby enhancing overall system flexibility and reliability.
System-Level Interpretation
These equations describe the hydrogen energy cycle, where surplus renewable electricity is converted into
hydrogen via electrolysis, stored as chemical energy, and reconverted into electricity using fuel cells when
required. This process enables energy shifting across time, ensuring efficient utilisation of excess generation
and supply during deficit periods. Hydrogen storage complements short-term EV storage by providing long-
duration flexibility and enhancing overall system reliability.
Electric Mobility and Vehicle-to-Grid (V2g) Subsystem
Electric vehicles (EVs) play a dual role within the proposed sector-coupled framework, functioning both as
transportation assets and as distributed energy storage systems. When aggregated, EV batteries represent a
significant flexible resource capable of supporting grid stability through smart charging strategies and
bidirectional vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation.
By intelligently controlling charging and discharging cycles, EVs can absorb excess renewable energy during
periods of surplus and supply energy back to the grid during peak demand periods. This enhances overall
system flexibility and reduces reliance on conventional backup generation.
Role in Energy Management
Within the sector-coupled system, EVs absorb surplus renewable energy during high generation periods and
supply energy back to the grid via V2G during deficit conditions. This bidirectional functionality enables
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EVs to provide peak load reduction, demand response, and short-duration energy storage, thereby enhancing
grid flexibility and renewable energy utilisation.
Vehicle-to-Grid Operation
In vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode, electric vehicles (EVs) operate as distributed energy resources by discharging
stored energy from their batteries back into the grid. This process typically occurs during periods of peak
electricity demand or low renewable generation, thereby supporting grid stability and reducing peak load
stress. Within the sector-coupled framework, V2G supports grid operation during deficit and peak demand
periods, while enabling EVs to recharge or remain idle under normal conditions. This bidirectional capability
enables EVs to function as short-term energy storage, complementing long-term hydrogen storage, and
effectively forming a virtual power plant that responds dynamically to grid conditions.
The integration of EV fleets with renewable generation enables dynamic load balancing and enhances overall
system flexibility.
Functional Contributions of EV Integration
The integration of electric vehicles (EVs) within the sector-coupled framework enhances grid flexibility by
enabling EV fleets to operate as distributed energy resources. Through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) functionality
and smart charging, EVs contribute to peak load reduction, demand response, short-term energy storage, and
improved load distribution. The interaction between renewable generation, hydrogen systems, and EVs is
coordinated by an Energy Management System (EMS), which dynamically optimises energy flows between
generation, storage, and demand. The EMS prioritises renewable energy utilisation, efficient allocation of
surplus energy to hydrogen production and EV charging, reliable supply during deficit conditions via V2G
and fuel cells, and minimisation of system losses and curtailment. The operation of the proposed Energy
Management System (EMS) is governed by the overall energy balance presented in Equation (1). The EMS
continuously coordinates renewable generation, hydrogen production, electric vehicle charging, and vehicle-
to-grid operation to satisfy electricity demand while minimising renewable energy curtailment and system
losses
Case Study: Sector-Coupled Electric Mobility and Renewable Energy Integration in Kenya
Kenya’s power system is characterised by a high share of renewable energy, accounting for approximately
90% of electricity generation, primarily from geothermal, hydro, and wind sources. This strong renewable
base provides a favourable foundation for sector-coupled energy systems. Electricity demand continues to
grow, with peak demand occurring during evening hours, creating a mismatch between renewable supply
and load. Electric mobility adoption is expanding rapidly, with over 35,000 EVs by 2025, largely driven by
electric motorcycles and buses. Within this context, surplus renewable energy generated during daytime can
be utilised for EV charging and hydrogen production. During evening peak periods, energy stored in EVs
(via V2G) and hydrogen systems (via fuel cells) can be used to balance supply and demand.
Figure 3. Representative 24-hour renewable power profile for Kenya.
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The data presented are based on reported trends in Kenya’s energy system, including solar generation
patterns, stable geothermal contribution, and typical EV charging demand behaviour. The values are
indicative and derived from literature to demonstrate system operation under realistic conditions. The axes
represent time (hours) and power (kW), respectively. Solar generation follows a typical diurnal pattern,
peaking at midday and falling to zero at night, while wind and geothermal provide a more stable and
continuous energy supply. EV demand remains low during early hours and increases during the evening peak,
reflecting typical charging behaviour. Kenya’s energy system demonstrates a strong foundation for sector
coupling, with high renewable penetration supporting transport electrification. Surplus renewable energy can
be utilised for EV charging and other flexible loads, while EVs function as distributed energy storage
resources. The system already exhibits key elements of sector coupling, including the direct use of renewable
electricity for transport and the integration of EV batteries as flexible storage. Although hydrogen
infrastructure remains underdeveloped, existing conditions provide a suitable basis for future integration of
hydrogen as a long-duration energy storage solution. Key insights from the Kenyan case include the ability
of renewable energy to support transport decarbonisation, the role of EVs as flexible loads in reducing
curtailment, and the benefits of decentralised systems in improving resilience and energy access. However,
challenges such as limited charging infrastructure, grid constraints, and high upfront costs remain. Overall,
the Kenyan case demonstrates the feasibility of integrating renewable energy and electric mobility, while
highlighting the potential benefits of incorporating hydrogen systems to further enhance flexibility and
support long-term energy balancing
.
Figure 4. Sector-coupled framework in the Kenyan
This figure is a conceptual illustration based on the proposed framework, highlighting the bidirectional
energy flows between renewable generation, electric vehicles, and hydrogen subsystems. It is intended to
demonstrate system interactions rather than quantitative results. Showing the interaction between renewable
generation, electric mobility, and potential hydrogen integration. Renewable energy, primarily from solar and
wind, is used for EV charging, where EVs act as both transport units and distributed storage. Energy can
either be used directly for transport or supplied back to the grid through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation
during peak demand. Surplus renewable energy can also be converted into hydrogen via electrolysis for long-
term storage and later use in electricity generation or transport. Overall, the diagram highlights the
interconnected and bidirectional energy flows that enhance system flexibility and efficiency.
Electric Mobility Deployment and Grid Interaction
Electric mobility in Kenya has grown rapidly, supported by government initiatives and private-sector
innovation. By 2025, EV adoption particularly motorcycles and buses have expanded significantly, supported
by battery-swapping and decentralised charging solutions. Kenya’s high renewable energy share enables EV
charging using surplus electricity, reducing curtailment. In this context, EVs act not only as transport systems
but also as flexible loads and distributed storage, contributing to grid balancing and improved energy
utilisation.
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Operational Characteristics of the Proposed Framework
The proposed sector-coupled framework operates by coordinating renewable electricity generation, hydrogen
production, and electric vehicle (EV) charging, according to variations in renewable energy availability and
electricity demand. During periods of high renewable generation, surplus electricity is directed to EV
charging and hydrogen production through electrolysis, thereby reducing renewable energy curtailment.
During periods of low renewable generation or high electricity demand, stored energy from EV batteries
through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation and hydrogen fuel cells can be utilised to support grid operation and
improve system flexibility. Hydrogen production within the proposed framework is directly related to the
availability of surplus renewable electricity. When renewable generation exceeds electricity demand, excess
energy is converted into hydrogen through electrolysis for long-term storage. This stored hydrogen can
subsequently be used for electricity generation or transport applications during periods of reduced renewable
energy availability.Electric vehicles contribute to grid flexibility through controlled charging and vehicle-to-
grid (V2G) operation. During periods of surplus renewable generation, EVs absorb excess electricity through
smart charging, while during peak demand they can discharge stored energy back to the grid, thereby
improving load balancing and reducing reliance on conventional generation. Although this study does not
present quantitative performance evaluation through numerical simulation, the proposed framework is
expected to improve renewable energy utilisation, reduce renewable energy curtailment, enhance grid
flexibility, and strengthen long-term energy resilience by integrating hydrogen storage with electric mobility.
These expected benefits are consistent with findings reported in recent studies on sector-coupled energy
systems. The integration of renewable hydrogen and electric mobility provides complementary flexibility
across different timescales. Electric vehicles offer rapid, short-duration energy storage and demand response,
whereas hydrogen provides high-capacity, long-duration energy storage suitable for extended periods of low
renewable generation. Combining these technologies within a sector-coupled framework improves
operational flexibility and enhances the resilience of renewable-based energy systems in developing
economies.
Renewable Energy Coupling with Transport Systems
Kenya’s energy system provides a strong example of implicit sector coupling through the integration of
renewable energy and electric mobility, even in the absence of fully developed hydrogen infrastructure. Solar-
powered EV charging and battery-swapping systems enable decentralised energy use and reduce reliance on
conventional grid infrastructure. These systems allow surplus renewable energy to be redirected to transport
applications, improving overall energy utilisation while reducing grid stress. Studies have shown that
integrating EVs into solar-based systems can enhance performance by absorbing excess generation and
reducing dependence on fossil fuels [14]. This interaction between renewable energy and transport aligns
with the proposed sector-coupled framework, where EVs act as flexible demand-side resources. It also
highlights the potential for future integration of hydrogen systems to provide long-duration energy storage
and further enhance system flexibility.
System Flexibility and Grid Implications
Kenya provides valuable insights into the impact of electric vehicle (EV) adoption on grid performance in
developing economies. Uncontrolled EV charging can strain distribution networks and increase peak
demand; however, smart charging strategies can mitigate these effects by shifting demand to periods of high
renewable generation, thereby improving load balancing and grid stability. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
technology further enhances system flexibility by enabling EVs to operate as distributed energy storage units,
supplying electricity back to the grid when required. Although V2G deployment in Kenya is still emerging,
it aligns closely with the proposed sector-coupled framework, supporting the transition toward a more
flexible and decentralised energy system.
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Socio-Economic and Environmental Impact
The Kenyan case demonstrates that sector-coupled energy systems can deliver significant socio-economic
and environmental benefits. Transport electrification reduces emissions and operating costs while improving
energy security by decreasing reliance on imported fuels [15] Additionally, EV adoption supports local
economic development through job creation and expansion of related industries [16]. However, challenges
remain, including limited charging infrastructure, grid capacity constraints, high upfront costs, and regulatory
gaps. Addressing these issues requires integrated planning, targeted investment, and supportive policy
frameworks to enable effective sector coupling and long-term sustainability.
Relevance to the Proposed Framework
The Kenyan case study provides strong empirical support for the sector-coupled energy framework proposed
in this paper. Table 1 presents a mapping between the key components of the framework and their
corresponding real-world implementation in Kenya.
Framework Component
Kenya
Renewable generation
>90% renewable electricity mix
Electric mobility
Rapid EV adoption (buses and motorcycles)
Distributed storage
Battery-swapping systems and EV batteries
Smart energy use
Solar-powered charging infrastructure
Sector coupling
Integration of power and transport sectors
Table 1. Proposed framework components
The information presented in this table is based on publicly available reports and literature sources related to
Kenya’s energy system and electric mobility development and is intended to provide a qualitative
representation of the proposed framework components. The comparison shows that several elements of sector
coupling particularly the integration of renewable energy and electric mobility are already being realised in
practice. While large-scale hydrogen deployment remains limited, the availability of renewable resources
and flexible EV demand provides favourable conditions for future integration of hydrogen systems for long-
term energy storage and transport decarbonisation [17]. Overall, the Kenyan case demonstrates the feasibility
of the proposed framework and highlights the potential for developing economies to progressively adopt
sector-coupled systems.
Case Study: Hydrogen Development and Sector Coupling in South Africa
South Africa represents a leading hydrogen-focused case in Africa, demonstrating how renewable energy can
be integrated with hydrogen production to support decarbonisation and enhance energy system flexibility
[18] The country’s abundant solar and wind resources, combined with targeted policy initiatives, position it
as a key example of sector coupling in a developing economy context. Through its Hydrogen Society
Roadmap, South Africa aims to scale green hydrogen production and expand electrolyser capacity, supported
by large-scale renewable energy projects, particularly in regions such as the Northern Cape [19]. These
developments highlight the country’s potential to become a major producer and exporter of green hydrogen.
Overall, South Africa illustrates how renewable resource availability, infrastructure investment, and
supportive policy frameworks can enable large-scale integration of hydrogen within sector-coupled energy
systems [20].
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Hydrogen Strategy and Policy Framework
South Africa has established a national strategy through its Hydrogen Society Roadmap, positioning green
hydrogen as a key component of its energy transition and economic development plans [21] The strategy
focuses on decarbonising hard-to-electrify sectors, developing a global hydrogen export market, improving
energy security, and supporting economic growth. To support these goals, the government has identified
priority hydrogen development hubs, including Johannesburg, Durban, and Limpopo, based on their
proximity to renewable resources and industrial demand [22] South Africa aims to significantly scale
hydrogen production, targeting approximately 500,000 tonnes per year by 2030, supported by expanding
electrolyser capacity [23] .This policy-driven approach provides a strong foundation for integrating hydrogen
into sector-coupled energy systems.
Renewable Hydrogen Production Systems
A key element of South Africa’s energy transition is the integration of renewable energy with hydrogen
production through electrolysis, enabling the direct conversion of renewable electricity into green hydrogen
[24]. For example, pilot projects in the Northern Cape utilise co-located solar photovoltaic (PV) systems to
power electrolysers, producing hydrogen without associated carbon emissions [25]. This approach
demonstrates the core principle of converting variable renewable energy into storable chemical energy while
reducing curtailment. The produced hydrogen can be applied across multiple sectors, including heavy-duty
transport, industrial processes, and export markets. Overall, this integrated approach highlights the role of
hydrogen as a long-duration energy storage solution and a key enabler of sector coupling, enhancing grid
flexibility and supporting decarbonisation [26].
Grid Flexibility and Energy Storage Role
South Africa faces ongoing challenges related to grid instability, driven by supply–demand imbalances and
ageing infrastructure. In this context, renewable hydrogen is being explored as a long-duration energy storage
solution to enhance system resilience and flexibility [27]. Pilot projects, including those by Eskom, are
investigating the integration of hydrogen systems with solar photovoltaic (PV) generation and storage
technologies to assess performance under real grid conditions [28]. Hydrogen enhances grid flexibility by
storing surplus renewable energy, providing backup power via fuel cells during peak demand, and enabling
long-duration and seasonal storage. This aligns with the proposed sector-coupled framework, where
hydrogen complements EV-based storage to create a multi-layered flexibility system. Overall, the integration
of hydrogen and EV storage improves grid stability, reduces reliance on fossil-fuel backup generation, and
supports higher penetration of renewable energy.
Sector Coupling and Transport Applications
South Africa’s hydrogen strategy targets hard-to-electrify transport sectors, including heavy-duty freight,
industrial transport, and long-distance logistics. The Hydrogen Society Roadmap supports the deployment
of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCEVs), such as trucks and buses, for applications requiring high energy
density and rapid refuelling [29]. This highlights the complementary roles of battery electric vehicles (BEVs)
and FCEVs within a sector-coupled system. BEVs are suitable for short-distance and urban transport, while
FCEVs are better suited to heavy-duty and long-range applications. Together, these technologies enable an
integrated and flexible transport system, where renewable energy is utilised both directly through EVs and
indirectly through hydrogen, supporting decarbonisation and reducing reliance on fossil fuels [30].
Economic and Developmental Impact
The development of a green hydrogen economy in South Africa is expected to deliver significant socio-
economic and energy system benefits [31]. Hydrogen expansion can support job creation, industrial
development, and international investment, while enabling participation in global export markets. In
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addition, hydrogen contributes to energy system resilience by diversifying the energy mix, enhancing energy
security, and reducing exposure to fossil fuel price volatility. Overall, the hydrogen economy represents a
pathway toward sustainable economic growth and reinforces the role of sector coupling in linking energy
production with industrial development and transport decarbonisation.
Challenges and Limitations
This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. The proposed framework is conceptual and
analytical rather than simulation-based; therefore, it demonstrates the operational principles of sector
coupling without providing optimised system performance or detailed numerical validation. The
representative renewable energy generation and electricity demand profiles discussed in this study were
derived from published literature and publicly available reports, and actual system performance may vary
depending on local climatic conditions, electricity demand characteristics, renewable resource availability,
and infrastructure development. Furthermore, comprehensive techno-economic analysis, life-cycle
assessment, optimisation of system components, and detailed cost evaluation were beyond the scope of this
research. The successful implementation of the proposed framework also depends on several external factors,
including supportive government policies, investment in renewable energy and hydrogen infrastructure, the
rate of electric vehicle adoption, and the deployment of smart grid technologies, all of which vary
considerably across developing economies. These limitations provide opportunities for future research
involving detailed simulation, optimisation, and techno-economic assessment to further evaluate the
feasibility and scalability of the proposed sector-coupled framework.
Relevance to the Proposed Framework
The South African case study provides strong support for the hydrogen component of the proposed sector-
coupled framework, demonstrating how renewable energy can be effectively integrated with hydrogen
production, storage, and transport applications in practice. Table 2 presents a comparison between key
elements of the framework and their real-world implementation in South Africa.
Framework Component
South Africa
Renewable energy input
Solar-powered electrolysis systems
Hydrogen production
Large-scale and pilot electrolysers
Long-term storage
Hydrogen as seasonal energy storage
Transport integration
Hydrogen for heavy-duty vehicles
Sector coupling
Power → Hydrogen → Transport
Table 2. Sector-coupled framework in relation to South Africa [30]
The data in this table are derived from published studies and policy reports on hydrogen development in
South Africa and are intended to illustrate the alignment between the proposed framework and real-world
applications rather than provide precise quantitative analysis. The results show that key elements particularly
the integration of renewable energy with hydrogen production are already being realised. Solar-powered
electrolysis demonstrates how variable renewable energy can be converted into a storable energy carrier,
improving flexibility and reducing curtailment. In addition, hydrogen-based applications in heavy transport
highlight the extension of sector coupling beyond the power sector. Overall, the South African case confirms
the feasibility of the proposed framework and the role of hydrogen in enabling long-duration storage and
decarbonisation of hard-to-electrify sectors.
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DISCUSSION AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
The proposed sector-coupled framework enhances renewable energy utilisation by coordinating renewable
generation, hydrogen storage, and electric vehicle (EV) integration within a unified system. Surplus
renewable electricity is redirected to hydrogen production and EV charging, reducing curtailment and
improving flexibility. EVs, through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) functionality, provide short-term storage and grid
support, while hydrogen enables long-duration energy balancing, creating a complementary multi-layered
storage system that improves grid stability and supports transport decarbonisation. The Kenya and South
Africa case studies demonstrate the practical applicability of this approach, highlighting sector coupling as a
viable pathway toward low-carbon energy systems in developing economies. Compared with conventional
systems relying on grid expansion or standalone storage, the proposed framework enables improved energy
balancing across multiple timescales through the integration of EV batteries and hydrogen storage. However,
challenges remain, particularly the high capital cost of hydrogen infrastructure and constraints related to
scalability, grid capacity, and regulatory frameworks. These may be mitigated through declining technology
costs, improved renewable energy utilisation, and potential revenue streams from V2G services. The modular
structure of the framework supports phased implementation, beginning with EV integration and gradually
incorporating hydrogen systems. Overall, the framework enhances grid flexibility, energy resilience, and
decarbonisation potential, although future work should focus on detailed simulation, optimisation, and
techno-economic analysis to validate large-scale deployment.
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