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The Impact of ITA-Wogba Creek’s Flooding on the Socio-
Economic Activities of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
Uro Edward
1
, Okocha, Sunny
2*
1
Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
2*
Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150600108
Received: 04 July 2026; Accepted: 09 July 2026; Published: 13 July 2026
ABSTRACT
Flood is one of the recurrent environmental problems that has affected urban communities in Port Harcourt,
Rivers State, Nigeria. This study focused on the effect of flood in the Ita-Wogba Creek area on the socio-
economic activities of people living in selected flood-prone communities in Port Harcourt Metropolis. This study
was done to identify the causes of floods, examine the socio-economic effects of floods, find out the coping
measures employed by people, and investigate the relationship between the occurrence of floods and socio-
economic losses. The research adopted a descriptive survey design in conducting this study. Data was collected
from 400 respondents using a multi-stage sampling method from four communities around the Ita-Wogba Creek
area. The findings revealed that improper disposal of solid waste, inadequate drainage systems, poor urban
planning, and rapid urbanisation are the major causes of flooding in the study area. Flooding was found to
negatively affect livelihoods, damage residential and commercial properties, increase health risks, disrupt
educational activities, and impose financial burdens on households. Temporary evacuation, construction of
makeshift barriers, and elevation of household belongings were identified as the most common coping strategies
adopted by residents. The study further established that flooding contributes to the prevalence of waterborne and
vector-borne diseases, including cholera, typhoid fever, and malaria. Correlation analysis revealed a strong
positive and significant relationship between flooding frequency and socio-economic losses (r = .881, p < .001),
indicating that increased flood occurrence leads to greater socio-economic damage. The study concludes that
flooding around Ita-Wogba Creek is largely driven by human-induced factors and poses significant socio-
economic and public health challenges. It recommends improved drainage infrastructure, effective waste
management, sustainable urban planning, and strengthened community-based flood management strategies.
Keywords: Flooding, Community Resilience, Socio-Economic Impacts, Coping Strategies, Health Risks, Urban
Planning, Disaster Management, Environmental Health
INTRODUCTION
The rise in natural disasters has resulted in many forms of consequences, which include the destruction of
properties, loss of lives, and damage to the environment. Especially in underdeveloped countries, this situation
has exacerbated poverty levels and made people vulnerable to health conditions (Coates et al., 2021; Adeyeye
et al., 2021; Mazel-Cabasse, 2019; Living with Risk, 2016). Among these types of disasters, floods have proven
to be among the costliest disasters in terms of finances, both in Nigeria and internationally. Urbanisation and
changing climates have been among the factors that have raised the risk levels of flooding, especially in regions
like Nigeria (Richard & Okeke, 2023). With the increasing incidence of flooding events caused by various factors
such as coastal surges, flooding of rivers, and rainfall, people all across Nigeria have been adversely affected
(Viero et al., 2019; Li-An et al., 2018). In particular, urban areas suffer immensely due to poor planning and
waste disposal, and Port Harcourt is no exception. This city, located on the low-lying coast, represents one of
many cities in Nigeria prone to flooding. With an inherent susceptibility to flooding and the presence of poor
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infrastructure, it becomes vital to appreciate the perceptions of residents regarding flood hazards (Emeka et al.,
2021). It is important for an assessment of preparedness among the community about floods to have knowledge
of the community’s perception regarding floods. This knowledge is important in helping devise a strategy that
will effectively manage the issue of floods and increase government intervention (Yin et al., 2021; Howarth,
2017). It is also possible for the incorporation of the knowledge to make it possible for the formulation of
communication and mitigation measures.
As far as the repeated occurrences of climatic hazards are concerned, it is through social welfare programs that
the vulnerability of individuals can be mitigated and immediate humanitarian help can be provided (Kundo et
al., 2022). In addition to providing essential support services, these welfare initiatives serve as a means through
which aid can be distributed during emergencies, thus complementing the ongoing efforts. Several studies have
been carried out on the problem of urban flooding in Port Harcourt and other cities in Nigeria (Echendu, 2021;
Richard & Okeke, 2023). However, most of the studies have only centred their attention on the general causes
of floods, climate change, and urban planning issues. There is a lack of empirical evidence on the flooding of
Ita-Wogba Creek and the impacts that come from the combined socio-economic and health consequences of Ita-
Wogba Creek flooding. Besides, there are no available studies that have concurrently looked into residents’
perceptions and adaptation to the same problem at the local level.
Aim and Objectives
The study aims to bring to the fore the impact of Itawogba Creek’s flooding on the economic activities of Port
Harcourt. The study objectives are to:
1. Examine the causes of flooding in the study area
2. Examine the socio-economic impact of flooding on the people
3. Identify the applied coping mechanisms of the people during flooding
4. Examine the people's health impact of flooding.
Hypothesis
H
0
: There is no statistically significant relationship between flooding frequency and socio-economic losses in
the study area
CONCEPTUAL REVIEW
Causes of Flooding
Floods involve the inundation of areas normally above the water level, causing environmental, social, and
economic challenges. Urban floods result from a variety of natural and human-caused reasons. Some of the
leading reasons for flooding in Nigerian cities, according to Echendu (2023), include heavy rainfall, climate
variability, poor drainage systems, blocked waterways, rapid urbanisation, and irresponsible waste disposal.
Flooding in Port Harcourt occurs due to a variety of reasons, including the occupation of natural waterways, lack
of proper stormwater management structures, and the blocking of Ita-Wogba Creek through the deposition of
debris. The presence of these challenges makes it difficult for the waterway to store runoffs during times of
heavy rainfall.
Socio-Economic Impact of Flooding
Socio-economic effects of floods can be described as the effects that occur as a result of floods on the livelihoods,
assets, economic activity, incomes, and the overall welfare of the individuals affected by such floods. Flooding
results in the demolition of residential property, cessation of economic activities, evacuation of the individuals
affected by the floods, losses in income, and damage to infrastructure, among others. As De Brito et al. (2024)
argue, the recurring flooding results in economic losses, decreased productivity, and poverty among the
individuals residing in the affected areas. In the city of Port Harcourt, flooding of the Ita-Wogba Creek has led
to economic activities being hindered.
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Coping Mechanisms Adopted During Flooding
The coping measures are the approaches taken by people in an effort to minimise the consequences of flooding
and increase their resilience. The coping measures could either be structural or non-structural. Structural coping
measures include embankments, construction of high-level foundations, creation of drainage paths, and creation
of barriers, while non-structural coping measures include temporary evacuation, community-based early warning
systems, environmental sanitation, and campaigns against flooding. As per John (2025), people living in flood-
prone areas depend on adaptation approaches such as raising their belongings, creating pathways, and evacuating
in times of heavy floods.
Health Impact of Flooding
Health effects of floods involve the health-related effects resulting from the flooding disaster on the affected
populations. The floodwaters tend to pollute sources of water for drinking, cause transmission of diseases that
thrive in such conditions, and provide breeding grounds for disease-causing vectors. As highlighted by Suhr &
Steinert (2022), flooding has been known to result in incidences of cholera, typhoid fever, malaria, diarrhoea,
and skin infections. Flooding disasters can also cause stress, anxiety, and trauma to the victims. Flooding in the
Ita-Wogba Creek region has resulted in poor sanitation levels and increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.
Conceptual Model
The study is based on a conceptual framework that demonstrates the association among causes of floods,
flooding itself and socio-economic outcomes in Port Harcourt. Causes of floods, such as heavy rains, inadequate
drainage systems, blocked drainage pathways, dumping of waste, and urbanisation, form the independent
variables. They lead to the occurrence of floods, which then affect socio-economic activities through destruction
of properties, disruption of business operations, displacement of people, economic loss and negative health
implications. How the locals cope with floods is considered a moderating variable, helping in minimising the
negative impacts of floods.
Figure 1: Causes and impacts of Ita Wogba Flooding.
Source: Author’s conceptualisation (2026).
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Theoretical Framework
Vulnerability Theory
According to Vulnerability Theory, which was proposed by Blaikie et al. (1994), it can be said that social,
economic, and environmental conditions determine how vulnerable an individual and a community are towards
natural hazards like floods. According to the theory, disasters happen not only due to physical hazards but also
because people do not have resilience against them. This theory is useful for our current discussion in the sense
that it can help us understand why people and businesses surrounding the Ita-Wogba Creek face different impacts
of floods according to their level of exposure.
The Study Area
Figure 2. Port Harcourt Metropolis the study area
Port Harcourt Metropolis is located in the Niger Delta region of southern Nigeria, approximately between
latitude 4.71°N and longitude 7.06°E (see Figure 2). The city serves as the administrative capital of Rivers State
and is bounded by neighbouring Local Government Areas, including Obio/Akpor, Eleme, and Oyigbo. Situated
along the Bonny River, which provides access to the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean, Port Harcourt
occupies a strategic geographical position that supports extensive economic and maritime activities within the
region. The metropolis was selected for this study due to its economic significance and its role as one of Nigeria’s
leading commercial and industrial centres. Port Harcourt is widely recognised as the hub of the country's oil and
gas industry, hosting numerous activities related to petroleum exploration, production, refining, and distribution.
The city also serves as an important centre for trade and commerce, with vibrant markets, business districts, and
financial institutions that contribute significantly to regional and national economic development. In addition,
manufacturing activities such as food processing, beverage production, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and
construction material production further strengthen the city’s industrial base. The transportation network of Port
Harcourt enhances its strategic importance. As a major port city, it is connected to other parts of Nigeria through
an extensive road network, railway facilities, and maritime transport infrastructure. These transportation linkages
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facilitate the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby promoting economic growth and regional
integration. The city also hosts several higher educational institutions, research centres, and professional training
facilities, which contribute to human capital development and innovation.
The physical environment of Port Harcourt is characterised by low-lying coastal plains, creeks, mangrove
swamps, and river channels typical of the Niger Delta region. The area experiences a humid tropical climate
with high annual rainfall and temperatures throughout the year. These environmental conditions support
economic activities but also expose the city to challenges such as flooding, environmental degradation, and
infrastructure stress. Furthermore, the hospitality and tourism sectors, including hotels, restaurants, recreational
parks, and cultural attractions, contribute to the socio-economic importance of the metropolis. Collectively, these
features make Port Harcourt a prominent urban centre and an ideal location for studies relating to economic
development, environmental management, and urban sustainability.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study employed a descriptive survey method to evaluate the effect of Ita-Wogba Creek floods on the socio-
economic activities of the people living in some selected flood-prone areas within Port Harcourt City, Rivers
State, Nigeria. This type of methodology was deemed suitable since it allowed the researchers to gather
information directly from the people concerning the effect of floods on their socio-economic activities.
Population
This study population was chosen from among the communities around Ita-Wogba Creek in Port Harcourt,
Rivers State. The total population of Port Harcourt is 2,188,930, which was projected from the 2006 National
Population Census with a growth rate of 2.6% per annum from 2006 to 2025 (National Population Commission,
2006). This population included the adult members of households in four flood-vulnerable communities, namely
Afam/Oloibiri Street, GRA Phase II, Anyama/Okija Street, and Olu-Obasanjo Road. According to local
government records, the total population was 159,627 (Port Harcourt Local Government Area Records, 2025).
Sample / Sampling Technique
A sample size of 400 respondents was determined using the Taro Yamane formula at a 5% margin of error:
2
1 eN
N
n
Where:
n-signifies the sample size
N-signifies the population under study
e-signifies the margin error = 0.05
For the purpose of enhancing representation and ensuring equal allocation among the chosen study locations,
the sample size was increased to 400 individuals. This implies that 100 respondents each were randomly selected
from the four locations, which are Afam/Oloibiri Street, GRA Phase II, Anyama/Okija Street, and Olu-Obasanjo
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Road. A multi-stage sampling method was adopted. The first stage involved the selection of the four communities
due to their proximity to the Ita-Wogba Creek and experience of frequent floods in the past. The second stage
entailed the enumeration of residences. The third stage entailed the selection of households using a systematic
random sampling method.
Instruments
Primary data collection involved the use of an instrument that comprised a structured questionnaire. It was
constructed on a scale of four points, where participants chose between Strongly Agree (4) and Strongly Disagree
(1). It helped in measuring the extent to which flooding takes place and the socio-economic effects of such
occurrences. Field observation was also performed to help in the interpretation of the answers provided.
Secondary data, on the other hand, was gathered from textbooks, journals, government publications, and
documents dealing with the issue of flooding and environmental management. Data regarding rainfalls, floods,
drainage systems and health were obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet), Rivers State
Emergency Management Agency (RSEMA) and some health facilities in Port Harcourt. Instrument reliability
was determined through a face and content validity test performed by three experts in Geography and
Environmental Management from the University of Port Harcourt. Cronbach's Alpha gave an alpha value of
0.83.
Method of Data Analysis
Data were analysed by using descriptive analysis such as mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage
in order to provide answers to the research questions and to present the respondents' opinions. The hypothesis
suggesting that there is no statistically significant association between frequency of flooding and socio-economic
impact was tested through the use of Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC) at the significance level of
0.05. The null hypothesis was rejected whenever the p-value < 0.05 and was accepted whenever the p-value >
0.05. All data were coded and analysed through SPSS.
RESULTS
Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Figure 3: Demographic characteristics of the respondents
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As can be seen in Figure 3 below, a total of 400 people took part in the study, where 254 (63.5%) were males,
and 146 (36.5%) were females. From this, it is clear that males formed the majority of the respondents in the
area under study. As far as age is concerned, 184 (46.0%) of the respondents belonged to the age range of 31-45
years, while 142 (35.5%) fell into the age range of 18-30 years. 58 (14.5%) respondents were in the age range
of 46-60 years, while 16 (4.0%) were above 60 years. As for occupation, 252 (63.0%) respondents were traders,
constituting the largest occupational group. The second largest occupational group comprised 84 (21.0%)
fishermen, followed by 34 (8.5%) civil servants and 30 (7.5%) respondents who were involved in other
occupations. On the other hand, in terms of educational qualification, 192 (48.0%) respondents were holders of
BSc or equivalent qualifications, whereas 122 (30.5%) respondents belonged to the other category. There were
50 (12.5%) respondents who had OND or equivalent qualifications, while 36 (9.0%) respondents had MSc or
equivalent qualifications. As far as the length of stay is concerned, 194 (48.5%) respondents had stayed in the
area for 6-10 years, 138 (34.5%) respondents had stayed in the area for more than 10 years, and 68 (17.0%)
respondents had stayed in the area for less than 5 years.
Objective One: Causes of flooding in the study area
Table 1 Perception of Respondents on causes of flooding in the study area
Causes of flooding
SA
A
D
SD
Mean
SD
Remarks
Rank
4
3
2
1
1
The lack of proper drainage
systems contributes significantly
to flooding in Port Harcourt.
293
107
3.73
.443
Accepted
2
2
Rapid urbanisation and unchecked
expansion lead to increased
surface runoff and flooding.
232
154
14
3.55
.565
Accepted
4
3
Improper disposal of solid waste
blocks drainage systems and
contributes to flooding.
313
87
3.78
.413
Accepted
1
4
Changing weather patterns,
including increased rainfall
intensity and frequency, worsen
flooding in Port Harcourt.
178
155
43
24
3.22
.864
Accepted
6
5
Inadequate urban planning and
enforcement of building
regulations contribute to flooding.
291
109
3.73
.446
Accepted
3
6
Lack of awareness and community
involvement in flood risk
reduction efforts exacerbate the
problem.
146
227
27
3.30
.587
Accepted
5
Total
3.55
.553
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2026
Table 1 presents respondents’ perceptions of the causes of flooding in the study area. The results show that all
the identified factors were accepted as causes of flooding since their mean ratings were above the criterion mean
of 2.50. Improper disposal of solid waste that blocks drainage systems was perceived as the most significant
cause of flooding, ranking first with a mean score of 3.78 (SD = 0.413). This was followed by the lack of proper
drainage systems, which ranked second with a mean score of 3.73 (SD = 0.443). Inadequate urban planning and
poor enforcement of building regulations also emerged as major contributors, ranking third with a mean score
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of 3.73 (SD = 0.446). Rapid urbanisation and unchecked expansion were identified as another important cause
of flooding, ranking fourth with a mean score of 3.55 (SD = 0.565). The lack of awareness and community
involvement in flood risk reduction efforts ranked fifth with a mean score of 3.30 (SD = 0.587). Changing
weather patterns, including increased rainfall intensity and frequency, ranked sixth with a mean score of 3.22
(SD = 0.864). The overall mean score of 3.55 (SD = 0.553) indicates that respondents generally agreed that
flooding in Port Harcourt is caused by a combination of infrastructural, environmental, and human-related
factors. These findings emphasise the need for improved waste management, effective drainage systems, proper
urban planning, and greater public participation in flood control efforts.
Trends in Climate Variables, Flood Occurrence, and Socio-Economic Impacts of Ita-Wogba Creek
Flooding in Port Harcourt (2019–2025)
The analysis of rainfall reveals that rainfall increased by 4.895 mm per annum. As seen in Figure 4, the least
square trend line shows that rainfall exhibited a slight increasing trend during the period studied. However, the
very low coefficient of determination (R² = 0.0061) suggests that rainfall varied considerably from year to year.
In contrast, temperature increased by 0.027°C per annum (Figure 5), with a relatively strong coefficient of
determination (R² = 0.6333), indicating a consistent warming trend that may contribute to increased flood
vulnerability in Port Harcourt.
Figure 6 shows that flooding remained a recurrent environmental challenge within the Ita-Wogba Creek area
between 2019 and 2025. Flood incidents ranged from 8 to 17 annually, while affected communities varied
between 5 and 17. Flood duration peaked at 37 days in 2022, demonstrating the persistent nature of flood events
and their potential to disrupt socio-economic activities. The socio-economic impacts of flooding are evident in
Figure 7. Houses damaged increased from 93 in 2019 to 229 in 2022, while businesses affected rose from 48 to
146 during the same period. Persons displaced reached 1,520 in 2022, accompanied by an estimated economic
loss of ₦491.4 million. These findings indicate that Ita-Wogba Creek flooding has negatively affected residential
properties, commercial activities, livelihoods, and economic productivity within Port Harcourt. The health
implications of flooding are presented in Figure 8. Cholera, typhoid, and malaria cases fluctuated throughout the
study period, with total disease cases peaking at 3,379 in 2022. This suggests that flooding contributed to poor
environmental sanitation, contaminated water sources, and increased exposure to disease vectors. Figure 9
highlights efforts to mitigate flooding through drainage maintenance and waste management. Although drainage
channels cleared and waste removed increased over time, flood complaints remained high, peaking at 306 in
2024. Overall, the findings demonstrate that flooding along Ita-Wogba Creek has significantly affected the socio-
economic well-being, public health, and environmental sustainability of Port Harcourt.
Figure 4: Total Annual Rainfall for Port Harcourt
y = 4.895x + 12251
R² = 0.0061
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Rainfall (mm)
Year
Rainfall (mm)
Linear (Rainfall (mm))
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Figure 5: Mean Annual Temperature for Port Harcourt
Figure 6 Flood Occurrence Records from RSEMA (2019–2025)
Source: Rivers State Emergency Management Agency (RSEMA).
y = 0.027x - 28.409
R² = 0.6333
24.8
25
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.8
26
26.2
26.4
26.6
26.8
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Temperature (℃)
Year
Temperature (℃)
Linear (Temperature (℃))
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
11
15
14
12
10
17
8
7
11
5
17
14
8
6
11
32
19
37
18
31
23
Flood Occurrence
Year
Number of Flood
Incidents
Communities
Affected
Estimated Duration
(Days)
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Figure 7 Records of Property Damage and Population Displacement (2019–2025)
Source: Port Harcourt City Local Government and Community Development Reports.
Figure 8 Hospital Records on Cholera, Typhoid, and Malaria Cases (2019–2025)
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Source: Selected Hospitals and Primary Health Centres within Port Harcourt Metropolis.
Figure 9 Drainage and Waste Management Reports from Port Harcourt City Council (2019–2025)
Source: Port Harcourt City Council Environmental and Sanitation Department.
Objective Two: The socio-economic impact of flooding on the people
Table 2 Perception of Respondents on the socio-economic impact of flooding on people
Socio-economic impact of
flooding
SA
A
D
SD
Mean
SD
Remarks
Rank
4
3
2
1
1
Flooding around ITA Wogba
Creek negatively affects the
livelihoods of people in the area
(e.g., farming, fishing, and small
businesses).
305
95
3.76
.426
Accepted
1
2
Flooding causes significant
damage to residential and
commercial properties in the
vicinity of ITA Wogba Creek.
198
202
3.49
.501
Accepted
2
3
Flooding increases health risks
such as waterborne diseases and
infections for residents living near
ITA Wogba Creek.
183
211
6
3.44
.527
Accepted
3
4
Flooding forces people to evacuate
their homes, leading to temporary
78
322
3.19
.397
Accepted
6
33
69
73
86
72
51
74
11
22
13
31
18
29
24
466
321
710
611
378
642
792
172
147
220
202
147
306
198
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025
Drainage Reports
Year
Blocked Drainage Points
Identified
Drainage Channels
Cleared
Waste Removed
(Tonnes)
Flood Complaints
Received
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or permanent displacement and
challenges in finding shelter.
5
Flooding disrupts education by
damaging schools and hindering
students' ability to attend classes.
192
179
19
10
3.38
.695
Accepted
4
6
Residents around ITA Wogba
Creek face increased financial
burdens due to flood-related
expenses such as repairs, medical
costs, and loss of income.
93
307
3.23
.423
Accepted
5
7
The community's ability to cope
with and adapt to flooding impacts
is limited, leading to long-term
socio-economic challenges.
111
270
19
3.23
.522
Accepted
5
Total
3.39
.499
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2024
Table 2 presents respondents’ perceptions of the socio-economic impacts of flooding on people living around
ITA Wogba Creek. The findings indicate that all the listed impacts were accepted, as their mean scores were
above the criterion mean of 2.50. Flooding was perceived to have the greatest impact on the livelihoods of
residents, including farming, fishing, and small businesses, ranking first with a mean score of 3.76 (SD = 0.426).
Damage to residential and commercial properties was identified as the second most significant impact, with a
mean score of 3.49 (SD = 0.501). Increased health risks, such as waterborne diseases and infections, ranked third
with a mean score of 3.44 (SD = 0.527). Disruption of education through damage to schools and reduced school
attendance was also considered a major consequence of flooding, ranking fourth with a mean score of 3.38 (SD
= 0.695). Residents increased financial burdens resulting from repair costs, medical expenses, and loss of income
ranked fifth with a mean score of 3.23 (SD = 0.423). Similarly, the community’s limited ability to cope with and
adapt to flooding impacts also ranked fifth, with a mean score of 3.23 (SD = 0.522). Forced evacuation and
displacement of residents ranked sixth with a mean score of 3.19 (SD = 0.397). The overall mean score of 3.39
(SD = 0.499) shows that respondents generally agreed that flooding has serious socio-economic consequences
on residents around ITA Wogba Creek, affecting livelihoods, property, health, education, and economic well-
being.
Objective three: Coping strategy of the people in the study area
Table 3 Perception of Respondents on coping strategy during the flood
Coping strategy
SA
A
D
SD
Mean
SD
Remarks
Rank
4
3
2
1
1
During flooding events, people in
the community come together to
support each other with resources
and assistance.
132
102
112
54
2.78
1.051
Accepted
5
2
Residents evacuate to safer areas
temporarily until floodwaters
recede.
334
66
3.83
.372
Accepted
1
3
Individuals construct makeshift
barriers using sandbags or other
281
104
11
4
3.65
.585
Accepted
2
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materials to protect their properties
from flooding.
4
People elevate their valuable
belongings or furniture to higher
ground to minimise damage during
floods.
72
328
3.18
.385
Accepted
4
5
Residents use boats or canoes to
navigate flooded areas for
transportation or rescue purposes.
242
131
16
11
3.51
.704
Accepted
3
6
Communities ensure access to
emergency supplies such as food,
water, and medical aid during
flooding situations.
71
63
197
69
2.34
.963
Rejected
6
7
People share information about
flood warnings, evacuation routes,
and safety measures through
community networks or social
media platforms.
63
72
137
128
2.18
1.050
Rejected
7
Total
3.07
.730
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2024
Table 3 presents respondents’ perceptions of the coping strategies adopted during flooding events in the study
area. The findings show that five of the identified strategies were accepted, while two were rejected based on the
criterion mean of 2.50. The most common coping strategy was temporary evacuation to safer areas until
floodwaters receded, which ranked first with a mean score of 3.83 (SD = 0.372). This was followed by the
construction of makeshift barriers, such as sandbags, to protect properties from flooding, ranking second with a
mean score of 3.65 (SD = 0.585). The use of boats or canoes for transportation and rescue during floods ranked
third with a mean score of 3.51 (SD = 0.704). Respondents also indicated that elevating valuable belongings and
furniture to higher ground was a common coping strategy, ranking fourth with a mean score of 3.18 (SD = 0.385).
Community support through the sharing of resources and assistance during flooding ranked fifth with a mean
score of 2.78 (SD = 1.051). However, ensuring access to emergency supplies such as food, water, and medical
aid was rejected, ranking sixth with a mean score of 2.34 (SD = 0.963). Similarly, sharing information on flood
warnings, evacuation routes, and safety measures through community networks or social media was rejected and
ranked seventh with a mean score of 2.18 (SD = 1.050). The overall mean score of 3.07 (SD = 0.730) indicates
that respondents moderately agreed that various coping strategies are employed during flooding, with evacuation
and property protection being the most commonly adopted measures.
Objective Four: The health impact of flooding in the study area
Table 4 Perception of Respondents on the health impact of flooding in the study area
The health impact of flooding
SA
A
D
SD
Mean
SD
Remarks
Rank
4
3
2
1
1
Flooding increases the risk of
waterborne diseases such as
cholera and typhoid fever among
residents.
337
63
3.84
.365
Accepted
1
2
Exposure to damp and mouldy
environments during flooding
287
113
3.72
.451
Accepted
3
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exacerbates respiratory problems
such as asthma and allergies.
3
Standing water post-flooding
serves as a breeding ground for
mosquitoes, leading to an increase
in vector-borne diseases like
malaria and dengue fever.
279
121
3.70
.460
Accepted
4
4
The stress and trauma associated
with flooding events have adverse
effects on residents' mental health,
including anxiety and depression.
112
288
3.28
.450
Accepted
6
5
Floodwaters pose risks of injuries
and accidents due to submerged
hazards, debris, and swift currents.
242
137
21
3.55
.594
Accepted
5
6
Flooding disrupts access to
healthcare services, hindering
residents' ability to seek medical
attention and treatment.
81
319
3.20
.402
Accepted
7
7
Exposure to floodwaters and
contaminated environments may
lead to long-term health issues
among affected individuals.
307
93
3.77
.423
Accepted
2
Total
3.58
0.449
Source: Researcher’s Fieldwork, 2024
Table 4 presents respondents’ perceptions of the health impacts of flooding in the study area. The findings
indicate that all the identified health impacts were accepted, as their mean scores exceeded the criterion mean of
2.50. Flooding was perceived to increase the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever,
ranking first with a mean score of 3.84 (SD = 0.365).
Exposure to floodwaters and contaminated environments, which may result in long-term health problems, ranked
second with a mean score of 3.77 (SD = 0.423). Exposure to damp and mouldy environments that aggravate
respiratory conditions such as asthma and allergies ranked third with a mean score of 3.72 (SD = 0.451).
Similarly, standing water after flooding was identified as a major health concern because it provides breeding
grounds for mosquitoes, increasing the prevalence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.
This factor ranked fourth with a mean score of 3.70 (SD = 0.460).
Flood-related injuries and accidents caused by submerged hazards, debris, and strong currents ranked fifth with
a mean score of 3.55 (SD = 0.594). The psychological effects of flooding, including stress, anxiety, and
depression, ranked sixth with a mean score of 3.28 (SD = 0.450), while disruption of access to healthcare services
ranked seventh with a mean score of 3.20 (SD = 0.402). The overall mean score of 3.58 (SD = 0.449) indicates
that respondents strongly agreed that flooding has serious health consequences, affecting both the physical and
mental well-being of residents in the study area.
Tested Hypothesis
H
0
: There is no statistically significant relationship between flooding frequency and socio-economic losses in
the study area
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Table 5: Correlation Coefficient between flooding frequency and socio-economic losses in the study area
Correlations
Flooding frequency
Socio-economic losses
Flooding frequency
Pearson
Correlation
1
.881
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
400
400
Socio-economic losses
Pearson
Correlation
.881
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
400
400
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The correlation coefficient between flooding frequency and socio-economic losses was presented in Table 5 in
the study area. There is a positive and statistically significant relationship between flooding frequency and socio-
economic losses in the study area (r = .881, p < .001). This shows that there is an increase in the socio-economic
losses suffered by the people of the study area, as there is an increase in the frequency of flooding. This shows
that the recurrence of flooding contributes significantly to damage to properties and economic losses of the
people of the study area. Also, the flooding frequency contributed significantly to the variance of socio-economic
losses in the study area, as 77.62% of the variance of socio-economic losses can be explained by the flooding
frequency (R² = 0.7762). Thus, there is a statistically significant relationship between flooding frequency and
socio-economic losses in the study area.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Results from the research showed that the lack of proper disposal of solid wastes was the leading cause of
flooding near Ita-Wogba Creek. These results are in line with Echendu (2021), who identified the lack of proper
disposal of wastes and blockage of drainage systems as the primary causes of flooding in urban areas in Port
Harcourt. Likewise, Lucas (2021) indicated that poor waste management and blockage of waterways were
among the leading causes of flooding in Nigerian urban areas. In addition, the research findings indicated that a
lack of drainage facilities and poor urban planning contributed immensely to flooding, as observed by Richard
and Okeke (2023). The results of this study point to the fact that the flood in the study region is mainly caused
by anthropogenic factors. It was found that flooding had notable socio-economic implications for the people,
especially in terms of interference with economic livelihoods such as trade and fishing. This result is in line with
the findings of Talbot et al. (2018), which showed that flooding generally leads to economic losses and
interruption of economic activities. It also supports the findings of Kawasaki & Shimomura (2024), who argued
that recurring floods lead to poverty and livelihood loss. Other consequences of flooding include property
damage and health risks. On coping strategies, temporary evacuation was identified as the most frequently used
strategy when it comes to flooding. This is in agreement with the research by Langkulsen et al. (2022), who
found that temporary relocation continues to be a popular form of adaptation among people living in areas prone
to flooding. The erection of improvised barriers and lifting of household items were other practices commonly
done, in agreement with Zhong et al.’s (2018) observation that local adaptations have been commonly used to
mitigate flooding impacts. But then again, the low use of emergency preparedness and communication strategies
implies a lack of institutional backup. In addition to this, the research also found that there were major public
health problems associated with floods. Among them are waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid fever,
which have been mentioned in Suhr & Steinert (2022) as some of the greatest health risks associated with
flooding, since flooding causes an increase in the number of diseases caused by water contamination. In the same
way, Zhong et al. (2018) found a significant relationship between floods and communicable diseases. The
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problem of being exposed to water contamination, as well as stagnant water and poor environmental sanitation,
can also cause serious health problems and vector-borne diseases like malaria.
CONCLUSION
The research highlighted the effects of floods from Ita Wogba Creek on the socio-economic activities of people
living in Port Harcourt Metropolis. From the findings, improper waste disposal, lack of drainage system,
urbanisation, and poor planning were found to play a critical role in flooding. Flooding brings about negative
impacts in terms of loss of livelihood, damage to property, poses health hazards, disruption of education, and
economic constraints, among others. Even though there are strategies adopted by people, such as relocation and
protecting their properties during flood periods, they are not sustainable.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and the synthesis of existing literature on urban flooding, several
recommendations can be proposed to address the identified challenges and enhance resilience in flood-prone
areas:
1. Local governments ought to emphasise comprehensive urban planning strategies that incorporate sustainable
infrastructure development and effective land use management. This entails allocating resources towards the
establishment of efficient drainage systems, the implementation of green infrastructure, and the design of
flood-resistant buildings to effectively reduce flood risks.
2. It is essential to prioritise community engagement initiatives to increase awareness of flood risks, enable
residents to take part in decision-making processes, and promote collective action in the implementation of
flood mitigation strategies. Involving communities can also support the adoption of effective coping
mechanisms and improve disaster preparedness efforts.
3. Municipal authorities ought to allocate resources towards the development of sophisticated monitoring
technologies and early warning systems to swiftly identify flood occurrences and issue timely notifications
to residents. This approach facilitates proactive evacuation strategies and aids in reducing the adverse effects
of flooding on public safety and infrastructure.
4. The public health infrastructure and services require significant improvement to adequately tackle the health
impacts associated with flooding. This improvement entails expanding access to clean water, sanitation
systems, healthcare services, and mental health resources in flood-affected regions. Additionally, public
health programs can educate residents on preventive measures against waterborne and vector-borne diseases
during flood events. By implementing these strategies, policymakers, urban planners, and community
stakeholders can work together to enhance resilience, reduce vulnerabilities, and promote the overall health
of urban populations in areas prone to flooding.
5. Government agencies should establish community-based flood monitoring systems and deploy early warning
technologies along Ita-Wogba Creek. Such systems will provide timely information on impending flood
events and enable residents to undertake preventive actions before floodwaters reach critical levels.
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