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Integrated transport planning for low-emission urban mobility: case
studies from U.S cities
Orton Omoataman
Environmental Sciences, Teesside University, Stockton-On-Tees, County Durham, United Kingdom
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2026.150600111
Received: 26 June 2026; Accepted: 01 July 2026; Published: 16 July 2026
ABSTRACT
As urban areas account for over 70% of global carbon dioxide emissions, integrated transport planning has
emerged as a critical mechanism for achieving low-emission urban mobility. This study examines the integration
of land use and transportation planning as a strategy for sustainable mobility through a descriptive case study
analysis of four major U.S. cities: New York City, San Francisco, Boston, and Los Angeles. The findings
demonstrate a clear correlation between compact cities and sustainable modal shares. Compact cities such as
New York City, San Francisco, and Boston successfully leverage high public transit modal shares to drive down
per capita emissions. In contrast, sprawling metropolitan areas like Los Angeles remain heavily car-dependent.
The findings also support existing discourse on sustainable urban mobility that city-wide electrification alone
will not achieve the required long-term climate obligations, but rather depends on an interplay of compact city
design, boosting public transit use, and accelerating the adoption of electric vehicles. Thus, this study proposes
the ABC roadmap as a long-term strategy for cities to achieve their respective climate change obligations
INTRODUCTION
The global concentration of population and economic activity has increasingly shifted toward cities (Kodukula,
2018). Consequently, cities occupy a central position in the global climate crisis, contributing over 70% of total
anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions (Alves et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2025). These emissions exacerbate
urban heat island effects and hasten global warming, thereby undermining critical infrastructure, public health,
property values, and overall community resilience (Deweerdt & Fabre, 2022). The transport sector represents a
substantial source of these emissions, accounting for approximately 24% of global carbon dioxide output—a
figure surpassed only by the power generation sector (Tiseo, 2025). Within this sector, road transport is the
primary emission source, responsible for 75% of total transportation-related carbon pollution (Tiseo, 2025).
Between 1970 and 2023, global transport-related emissions nearly tripled, a trend propelled by demographic
expansion, migration patterns, urban sprawl, and economic development (Schwanen, 2015; Tiseo, 2025).
Recent projections suggest urbanisation is expected to increase at a rapid pace: by 2050, 68% of the world’s
population, which is equivalent to an additional 2.5 billion people, will live in cities, giving rise to around 325
new metropolitan areas (Ribeiro & Fachinelli, 2024; Thondoo et al., 2020; UN Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, 2018). This demographic shift will intensify the demand for mobility and related services. Urban
passenger transport demand is projected to increase by nearly 75% between 2019 and 2050 under current policy
trajectories (ITF, 2022). In 2023, passenger cars alone contributed about 3.2 GtCO₂ (Statista, 2025). Urban
freight demand is growing even faster than passenger demand by an estimated 164% over the same period,
particularly in high-income countries such as the United States (US) (Bianchi Alves et al., 2023). Freight
emissions grew five times more than passenger emissions in the US between 1990 and 2021, as a result of
increases in freight trucking (US Department of Transportation, 2024).
As cities grow, there is an urgency to ensure they align their urban transport systems with long-term sustainability
goals, if they are to avoid entrenched, high-emission development pathways. In the academic field, there is
growing popularity indicating integrated transport planning as a key strategy for the development of low-
emission urban mobility systems (Osvaldo & Harris, 2025; Xi et al., 2025; Yang et al., 2023; Leibowicz, 2020).
This approach is typically structured around three core objectives. The first focuses on system-level spatial and
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infrastructure design that maximises accessibility and proximity to employment sites, services and key points in
the city. This objective directly tackles travel demand and mobility intensity by decreasing the need for long or
unnecessary trips. The second objective is about facilitating a modal shift towards more efficient and sustainable
transport modes. This involves the use of public transport (buses, rail and others), active travel methods (walking,
cycling and others) and new and shared mobility options. These modes typically deliver more energy use
efficiency per passenger-mile, better access to key services, and less reliance on private and energy-consuming
modes of transportation. The third objective relates to the shift to zero-emission technologies for all modes of
transport, including passenger cars, freight trucks, buses, land-based off-road machinery and jet skis, aircraft,
locomotives, maritime transport and related infrastructure systems, including pipelines. These technological
transitions, along with spatial and behavioural shifts, can facilitate deep decarbonisation in the transport sector
(Bianchi Alves et al., 2023; Daytec, 2018; Larkin et al., 2016; Nikolaeva et al., 2019; Richter et al., 2010;
Schwanen, 2015; Taylor, 2017; UN-Habitat, 2020; Zignani et al., 2013).
Thus, this study aims to examine the various aspects of urban mobility to identify the key attributes needed for
low carbon emissions. This case study approach is an initial catalogue of locally developed low-emission
mobility initiatives undertaken by cities in the US as solutions to climate change issues. This approach is widely
utilised by various authors across different topics related to low-emission urban mobility (Daytec, 2018; Ribeiro
& Fachinelli, 2024; Schwanen, 2015), and as suggested by Flyvbjerg (2011), can enable conclusions which may
also apply to other cities with less favourable conditions for systemic change.
The US is an appropriate setting as substantial shifts have been observed in the past few years, with US cities
becoming more environmentally sustainable for urban delivery (Rula et al., 2025). From 2005 to 2021, GHG
emissions decreased 17%, with transportation emissions accounting for 8.5% of the total (US EPA, 2026). The
U.S. has set ambitious GHG emissions reduction goals to keep the global average increase in temperature below
1.5°C when compared to the pre-industrial era. More specifically, the U.S. has pledged to cut GHGs 50-52%
from 2005 levels by 2030 in all sectors (UNFCCC, 2021). Further, the U.S. has established targets for 100%
carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035 and Net-zero emissions by 2050 (US DOS, 2021).
Theoretical Background
Much of the developed world's transportation systems were built at a time when economic efficiency was the
primary planning criterion, and environmental protection or social equity were only minor considerations.
However, in recent years, there has been an increasing demand for these systems to be focused on sustainability,
with social and environmental goals alongside economic performance (Thondoo et al., 2020).
The Global Status Report on Transport, Climate and Sustainability provides evidence on the critical role of
integrated transport planning for improving transport sustainability in cities. This approach facilitates
coordinated decision-making in land use, infrastructure and transport investment to enhance overall system
performance and mitigate negative externalities (SLOCAT, 2023). Integrated planning aims to ensure that
economic, social and environmental aspects are balanced to ensure that policy and investment decisions achieve
optimal outcomes in all three aspects of sustainable development, not at the expense of the others (Queensland
Transport, 2003).
Figure 1. Approaches to sustainable mobility (Hickman, 2019)
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Most of the transport decarbonisation strategies have historically prioritised technological solutions such as
cleaner vehicles and alternative fuels, often supported through subsidies while retaining an automobile-centred
mobility system. However, these strategies have shown to be insufficient on their own to achieve long-term
emissions reduction goals (McCahill, 2021; Medimorec et al., 2021; Milovanoff et al., 2020).
In contrast, more climate and sustainability benefits can be gained if policy focus is directed towards minimising
unnecessary travel and promoting modal shift to more sustainable modes of transport like walking, cycling, and
public transport. This holistic approach to travel avoidance and modal shift has been proven to achieve more
significant emission reductions and greater co-benefits, such as better health and urban liveability (Liimatainen
et al., 2018; Nag et al., 2019; SLOCAT, 2023).
Consequently, transport planning frameworks are increasingly adopting more holistic, people-centred
approaches that prioritise accessibility and quality of life over vehicle throughput. The Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) defines it as Avoid–Shift–Improve (ASI), a structured approach
to reducing transport-related CO₂ emissions. ASI not only seeks to decarbonise transport systems, but to also
improve social and economic outcomes by improving urban accessibility and overall quality of life (ESCAP,
2024). The ASI framework categorises actions at three levels (Figure 2):
Figure 2: The ASI framework components (Shah et al., 2021)
Table 1. ASI theoretical framework for achieving sustainable mobility
Core Objective
Mechanism of Action
Benefits
References
Avoid
Reduce overall
transport demand by
enabling access with
fewer or shorter trips
land-use strategies that
curb urban sprawl and
promote dense, compact,
and mixed-use
development.
•Reduced distance
travelled
•Reduced citywide
and transport-related
emissions
Improved public
health (lower rates
of obesity, high
blood pressure,
heart disease, and
diabetes)
•Reduced health-
care expenditure
(Aggarwal & Jain,
2016; Buldeo Rai et
al., 2022; Nakamura
et al., 2013; M.
Wang et al., 2017)
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Shift
promote the use of
more sustainable
(natural space- and
energy-efficient)
transport modes over
less sustainable ones
• Walking and cycling
infrastructure
• Public transport
investment
• E-micromobility (e-
bikes, e-scooters)
• Multimodal system
integration
• Pooled mobility (ride-
hailing, carpool)
• Reduced local air
and noise pollution
• Improved
accessibility
• Job creation
• Greater economic
productivity
(Adim et al., 2025;
ITDP, 2019;
SLOCAT, 2023;
UN-Habitat, 2022)
Improve
Improve performance
of vehicles,
operations, and fuels
across all modes
• Vehicle electrification
• Motorisation
management
• Vehicle loading and
flow optimisation
• Alternative fuels
• Reduced GHG
emissions
• Improved local air
quality
• Greater social
inclusion
• Enhanced public
health and safety
Adim et al., 2025;
ITDP, 2019;
SLOCAT, 2023;
UN-Habitat, 2022)
Actions at the AVOID level are typically the least resource intensive and can have powerful cascading impacts
that will support both SHIFT and IMPROVE strategies. Examples include land use and planning changes that
shorten travel distances, which can make walking and cycling more viable and desirable, and thus promote a
modal shift away from private car use. Concurrently, this spatial reorganisation could improve the viability and
performance of low-emission mobility options such as electric mobility, by better matching infrastructure and
mobility demand.
In addition to emissions reduction, interventions that are AVOID oriented can also have broader co-benefits of
sustainable urban development. These can be more convenient access to services, more productive economies
and employment opportunities from better spatial organisation. Other advantages include lower local air and
noise pollution, better public health, road safety and social inclusion due to better access to mobility and urban
opportunities.
METHODS
Research design
This study adopts a case study design integrated with a backcasting approach as both a scholarly and planning
framework for analysing, investigating, and developing future-oriented solutions in the fields of transportation
and mobility, sustainable technologies and sustainable system innovation, sustainable urban design, sustainable
transportation systems, and sustainable city development (Bibri, 2018; Bibri & Krogstie, 2019). Backcasting is
widely used in futures studies to explore uncertainties, support strategic decision-making, and guide policy
formulation by expanding the range of feasible long-term options. Unlike forecasting, which extrapolates current
trends into the future, backcasting begins with a clearly defined desirable future state and works backwards to
identify the strategic actions required to achieve it. The central question guiding this approach is: “If we want to
attain a certain goal, what actions must be taken to reach it?” (Bibri, 2018; Bibri et al., 2020).
Case study methodology is highly flexible and can be categorised into several design types, including
descriptive, explanatory, exploratory, illustrative, cumulative, and critical instance, each selected based on the
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specific objectives of the researcher (Yin et al., 2018). In this study, a descriptive case study design was adopted.
This approach is characterised by a focused and detailed examination about the phenomenon of sustainable urban
mobility, where key questions and propositions are clearly articulated at the outset. It relies on an existing body
of knowledge—referred to as a descriptive theory—which, in this context, relates to low-emission urban mobility
within sustainable urban development. The design seeks to describe how integrated transport planning results in
low-emission mobility in real-world urban contexts (Yin et al., 2018).
It is important to note that, within this research design, internal validity—that is, establishing causal relationships
between variables—is not the central concern. Unlike explanatory case studies, which aim to determine cause-
and-effect relationships, descriptive case studies focus on accurately portraying key characteristics, patterns, and
processes associated with a phenomenon. As such, this study does not attempt to explain why or when specific
outcomes occur, but rather to provide a comprehensive and context-rich description of the compact city as it
relates to sustainable transport and urban development.
Case Sampling and Selection Criteria
Typically, case studies focus on a small number of cases; three or four is the ideal number of cases a researcher
can handle for an in-depth exploration of the phenomenon under investigation (Schoch, 2020). This small sample
size is common in qualitative research, where the emphasis is on obtaining rich, detailed data rather than
achieving statistical generalisability.
When selecting cases, the researcher employed a purposeful sampling strategy, which involves choosing cases
that are information-rich and relevant to the research questions. This approach contrasts with quantitative
research, where random sampling is used to ensure representativeness of the entire population (Seawnght &
Gerring, 2008). Purposeful sampling allowed the researcher to illuminate the different dimensions of low-
emission mobility transitions
The selection process of cities for case study investigation was based on the availability and accessibility of
literature in the public domain, on how the cities behave in the present in terms of what has been realised and
the implementation of plans based on the corresponding practices and strategies associated with low-emission
urban mobility. This entails the ongoing and future activities being, and yet to be, undertaken in accordance with
the time horizon set in the planning and development documents of the cases. Moreover, low-emission urban
mobility involves a set of indicators as described by the ASI framework, which ensures that each case provides
sufficient evidence
Based on these criteria, the cases of New York City, San Francisco, Boston, and Los Angeles were selected.
These cities fall within the category of large and globally significant metropolitan areas in the US and are
characterised by varying levels of ambition and progress in the field of low-emission urban mobility, making
their planning practices and development strategies particularly suitable for analysis. This selection is further
supported by the international positioning of these cities in global mobility and sustainability rankings. For
instance, the 2022 urban mobility readiness index identifies the case cities as among the top-performing in terms
of urban mobility readiness, with San Francisco topping the index (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2022). In addition,
the 2024 US Transportation Climate Impact Index ranked New York City second, San Francisco third, Los
Angeles fourth and Boston eighth for low-carbon transport, using key indicators from the ASI
framework(Streetlight Data, 2024).
Data Sources
Case study research typically draws on multiple sources of evidence, such as interviews, archival records,
documentation, observations, and physical artefacts, to provide a holistic understanding of the phenomenon
under investigation (Olugbenga & Ridwan, 2025; Schoch, 2020). However, the selection of data sources is
guided by the nature of the research questions. In this study, the focus is on the design strategies of low-emission
cities and the extent to which these strategies balance environmental, economic, and social sustainability
outcomes. This focus informed the scope, framing, and management of data collection.
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The study relies primarily on qualitative data obtained from multiple documentary sources through systematic
searches of online databases. Primary data sources consist of official documents produced by public and private
institutions, including master plans, comprehensive plans, policy frameworks, strategic agendas, and project
reports related to low-emission urban mobility in New York City, San Francisco, Boston, and Los Angeles.
In addition, secondary data sources were utilised to complement and contextualise the primary data. These
include reports, academic journal articles, conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and research outputs
produced by organisations and scholars not directly involved in the implementation of low-emission initiatives.
The combination of primary and secondary sources enhances the robustness of the analysis by enabling
triangulation and providing multiple perspectives on the cases.
Data Analysis
Following data collection, the information was critically evaluated to identify patterns, relationships, and gaps
relevant to the research objectives (Yin et al., 2018). A thematic analysis approach was employed as the primary
analytical method. This qualitative technique is well-suited to the analysis of textual data and enables the
systematic identification, organisation, and interpretation of patterns (themes) within large datasets(Omoataman,
2025).
Thematic analysis is inherently flexible and not tied to a specific theoretical framework, allowing it to be applied
across different epistemological perspectives (Braun & Clarke, 2006). It is particularly appropriate in this study
due to the volume and diversity of documentary data. The analysis focuses on meaning embedded within textual
content while also considering the context in which the data were produced, which is especially important when
working with secondary data (Sirilakshmi et al., 2024).
A deductive approach to thematic analysis was adopted, whereby the coding and interpretation of data were
guided by pre-existing concepts derived from the literature, including the ASI framework and principles of
sustainable urban form. This approach allows for a structured examination of how established theoretical
constructs are reflected in real-world cases.
FINDINGS
Land Use Strategy of US cities for low-emission mobility
Land use is broadly acknowledged as a significant factor in sustainable urban form, and is generally expressed
in terms of the “five Ds”: density, diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit (Ewing &
Cervero, 2010). Density is the number of people or dwellings per unit of land area. Diversity is a measure of
land-use mix within a neighbourhood and is an indicator of the presence of complementary functions, such as
residential housing, retail outlets, educational institutions, and employment centres, in close proximity. Design
refers to the physical structure and layout of the built environment, such as the street connectivity, block patterns,
and pedestrian infrastructure, and well-designed urban areas tend to promote walking and cycling, and minimize
the need for private vehicles (Grasser et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016). Destination accessibility is the ease of
access for residents to get to key services, work, and facilities within the community and throughout the broader
city. Distance to transit refers to the distance from which people have to travel to reach public transport nodes
like bus stops or railway stations. Both have been shown to be very correlated with a higher public transport use
and greater active transport, especially if destinations are close and public transport is also close (Wang et al.,
2016).
Recent estimates of population density identify New York City as one of the most densely populated cities in the
US, with over 29,000 people per square mile. San Francisco is right behind New York City with over 18,000
people per square mile. Boston has over 13,000 people per square mile, and lastly, Los Angeles has over 8,000
people per square mile (US Census Bureau, 2025). Higher population density often leads to shorter travel
distances because destinations become closer to origins. Shorter distances are easier and more convenient to
walk or cycle, and reduce car use (Grasser et al., 2012; Y. Wang et al., 2016).
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Land use mix development is widely recognised as an important driver of walking behaviour and overall physical
activity levels. When the mix combinea a variety of facilities into a small geographic area, which decreases the
need for motorised transport and makes everyday destinations more accessible. This spatial configuration has
been shown to promote walking as a viable mode of transportation and increases residents' level of routine
physical activity (Christian et al., 2011).
New York City exhibits one of the most diverse land-use patterns in the US. The city’s zoning framework
accommodates eleven broad land-use categories, including low-density one- and two-family residential areas,
multi-family walk-up and elevator apartment buildings, mixed residential-commercial developments,
commercial districts, industrial and manufacturing areas, transportation and utility infrastructure, public facilities
and institutions, open spaces and recreational areas, parking facilities, and vacant land (NYC, 2026a).
Historically, land use mix was driven by concerns about public health, safety, and property values, with a focus
on separating residential areas from industrial zones to prevent fires, pollution, and overcrowding (NYC, 2026b).
In contrast, the city’s modern mixed-use zoning encourages walkable, integrated communities where people can
live, work, and shop in proximity (Kalei, 2024). Research on New York City's mixed-use zoning confirms that
land-use diversity and mixed-use development are key contributors to physical activity (Fry et al., 2021).
The City of San Francisco features a diverse mix of land uses that facilitate access to residential, commercial,
and recreational opportunities (San Francisco, 2022). The city's land-use and transportation integration policies
emphasise concentrating housing, employment, and services near transit corridors to reduce automobile
dependency and support sustainable mobility. A study comparing land-use strategies within the San Francisco
Bay Area finds that improving the jobs-housing balance yields greater reductions in vehicular travel than
bringing retail and consumer services closer to residential areas (Cervero & Duncan, 2006). However, recent
evidence indicates that the region has experienced rapid job growth that has greatly exceeded housing
production, driving up housing prices (Blumenberg & King, 2024; Blumenberg & Speroni, 2024). The mismatch
between jobs and housing potentially contributed to an increase in commute distance, as workers relocated to
outlying neighbourhoods in search of affordable housing.
Boston's land use is also characterised by a high mix of commercial, residential, and institutional spaces(City of
Boston Planning Department, 2026b, 2026a). The city's comprehensive plan, Imagine Boston 2030, identifies
the development of a mixed-use core as a central strategy for accommodating growth, increasing access to
opportunity, and supporting sustainable transportation(Boston, 2018). The plan emphasises enhancing existing
neighbourhoods, expanding transit-accessible growth areas, and encouraging mixed-use housing and
employment centres.
The plan recognises that concentrating jobs, housing, and services within accessible locations can reduce travel
demand and improve connections between neighbourhoods and economic centres (Boston, 2018). Areas such as
Downtown Boston, Seaport, Back Bay, Kendall Square, and the Fairmount Corridor demonstrate increasing
integration of residential, commercial, institutional, and recreational uses. The city's complementary mobility
strategy, Go Boston 2030, further links land-use planning with transportation investments to create vibrant,
transit-oriented communities (Boston, n.d.).
The compact urban structure (Integrating a mix of residential, commercial, and recreational functions within
high-density nodes) of New York City, Boston, and San Francisco reduces the necessity for long-distance
commutes by ensuring daily needs are met locally and supports high levels of public transport use (Aston et al.,
2021; Ewing & Cervero, 2017; Hache et al., 2019). Future progress towards carbon neutrality would therefore
depend less on increasing density and more on preserving affordability and preventing displacement in high-
accessibility areas
Unlike the other cities, Los Angeles requires substantial structural transformation to reach the 2050 low-emission
mobility vision. Enhancing the physical environment requires prioritising pedestrian-oriented infrastructure and
permeable street networks to encourage active travel over short distances. This necessitated a transition toward
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complete streets that balance human-scale aesthetics with safety to reduce the perceived barriers to cycling and
walking (Aston et al., 2021).
Historically, the city developed through extensive automobile-oriented suburban expansion characterised by the
separation of residential, commercial, and industrial land uses(Chamberlain & Riggs, 2016). This pattern
contributed to longer travel distances and a high reliance on private vehicles.
In recent years, however, Los Angeles has increasingly embraced mixed-use and transit-oriented development
(Los Angeles Department of City Planning, n.d.). The city's planning policies, including the Mobility Plan 2035
and Transit-Oriented Communities initiatives, seek to concentrate housing, employment, and services around
major transit corridors and rail stations (LA City, 2016). These policies aim to transform traditionally segregated
land-use patterns into more integrated urban environments that support walking, cycling, and public transport.
Research examining redevelopment around rail transit stations found that the city has actively sought to
encourage mixed-use projects near transit infrastructure, although existing zoning regulations and established
land-use patterns have sometimes constrained these efforts (Schuetz et al., 2018)
Transition to Sustainable Modes of Transportation
According to Tyler and Ward(2011), transportation systems are fundamentally embedded within urban structure
due to the strong interdependence between transport and land use. This relationship implies that a city’s land-
use configuration directly influences travel behaviour and modal choice(US DOT, 2025). For example, active
modes such as walking and cycling, and public transport use may become more viable choices in compact cities
than in sprawling ones.
Based on the American Community Survey (ACS) five-year estimates for 2014–2018, New York City
demonstrates a highly transit-oriented mobility structure consistent with its compact urban form. Commutes by
public transport (56.2%) are more common than commutes by personal car (22.4%). Other modes include
carpooling (4.5%), walking (9.9%), and cycling (1.2%). The modal split is more even in San Francisco, with
32.9% of trips made by private car, 34.2% by public transport, 11.4% walking, 4% cycling and 7.3% carpooling.
Boston also has a balanced modal split, with 38.8% of trips made by personal vehicle, 33.4% by public
transportation, 14.7% by walking, 2.2% by cycling, and 5.9% by carpooling. In contrast, Los Angeles is
significantly car dependent, with 69.4% of travels by private vehicles. Carpooling accounts for 8.8%, public
transport 9.4%, cycling 1% and walking 3.5%. Given the spatial scale of the city, it creates a significantly greater
mobility demand, with around 129 billion miles travelled in 2022 and associated emissions of 27.3 MtCO₂e,
largely from private cars. In comparison, New York City and San Francisco had much lower volumes of travel,
37 and 8 billion miles, respectively, and emissions of 3.7 and 1.3 MtCO₂e, respectively, showing the link between
urban form, travel behaviour, and transport-related emissions (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026a; 2026b; 2026c).
New York, Boston, and San Francisco consider public transit as the centrepiece of sustainable mobility, most
particularly for low-income earners (Abreu & Conway, 2023; Basu & Ferreira, 2021; Mostofi, 2021). In 2022,
the most common public transit modes used in New York City for weekday trips were the subway and buses
(NYC DOT, 2022). Cycling and walking became attractive “green modes” during COVID-19 for essential and
recreational travel when people avoided crowded transit (Abreu & Conway, 2023; Pase et al., 2020). The
majority of the weekday walk trips were less than a mile and under 10 minutes(NYC DOT, 2022). A study by
Ashraf et al.(2021) investigated the impacts of Citi Bike—the largest bike-sharing program in the world—on
the subway ridership in New York City and discovered that a 10% increase in the number of bike-sharing trips
in New York City increased the average daily subway ridership by 2.3%, strengthening the sustainable network.
San Francisco hosts several shared micromobility programs (SMPs) that provide shared conventional bicycles,
Shared e-bikes and e-scooters (Frye et al., 2024).
In the U.S., about 45 million trips were made using shared e-scooters and e-bikes in 2018 (Chang et al., 2019).
The average length of trips on e-scooters is typically between 0.72 km and 4.5 km, and the average duration of
e-scooter trips ranges from 8 to 20 minutes, as reported in international studies (Şengül & Mostofi, 2021). In
Southern California, approximately 97 percent of residents reside within two miles of a transit station, which is
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typically considered to be a very convenient distance for walking or e-micromobility access to a transit station
(SCAG, 2012). As a result, e-micromobility modes are well suited for trips less than 8 km, which make up about
50-60% of all trips in the United States (McKinsey, 2019). This highlights a substantial opportunity for modal
shift towards e-micromobility, particularly in car-dependent cities such as Los Angeles. In support of this,
Bedmutha et al. (2020) reported that the substitution of conventional motorised transport trips in the 5–8 km
range with e-micromobility could lead to a reduction in the transport energy demand of around 50%. At the same
time, there is substantial investment in financial and planning resources to expand public transport and active
travel infrastructure, with the overall goal of decreasing vehicle miles travelled in accordance with the state's
greenhouse gas reduction goals.
However, the findings also indicate important limitations. While increasing active transport can generate
environmental and health benefits, evidence from compact-city modelling suggests that highly motorised cities
such as Los Angeles may experience an increase in cyclist and pedestrian injuries if infrastructure improvements
do not accompany modal shifts (Stevenson et al., 2016). Consequently, a successful modal shift requires not only
behavioural change but also substantial investment in safe and accessible infrastructure.
Environmental Improvements and Transport Decarbonisation
San Francisco has become a model for urban climate action, reaching a 41% reduction in GHGs from 1990 levels
by 2019, six years before the original target (San Francisco Department of the Environment, 2021). A business-
as-usual (BAU) analysis of current estimates indicate that the city will continue to achieve its climate goals
without needing to reduce total mobility demand compared to 2022 (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026c). However,
the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) anticipates that the city will grow by another
200,000 residents and 150,000 jobs by 2040, which will add strain to the city's transportation system, housing,
and public services (SFMTA, 2019a).
In response, San Francisco has been investing in sustainable transit-oriented development, including the Bay
Area Transit-Oriented Affordable Housing (TOAH) Fund. The programme is designed to support the
development of affordable housing, community services, fresh food markets, and other amenities in
neighbourhoods that are close to key transit corridors, with the goal of creating equitable development around
transit corridors. As of 2021, TOAH-funded projects had provided nearly 2,300 affordable housing units
(Metropolitan Transportation Commission, n.d.).
In addition to these efforts, the city has boosted investments in walking and biking infrastructure with the Active
Communities Plan and other measures aimed at realising the 15-minute city vision and decreasing reliance on
personal vehicles (SFMTA, 2023; Jin et al., 2024). At the same time, San Francisco's Electric Vehicle Ready
Community Blueprint seeks to ensure that 80% of all trips are made using low-carbon modes by 2030 and that
all private vehicle traffic becomes electric by 2040 (SFMTA, 2019b). These goals are supported by California's
mandate for all new cars sold after 2035 to be zero-emission vehicles (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2020).
While these improvements have been made, there are still issues to be addressed. The city's high density urban
form makes it challenging to implement charging infrastructure, especially in multi-family residential buildings.
In addition, charging facilities are not evenly distributed across neighbourhoods, with fewer found in
neighbourhoods of colour and lower-income (SFMTA, 2019). Such differences show the need to make the
transition to low carbon mobility equitable and accessible to everyone (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2020).
New York City has made notable strides in achieving its long-term climate goals by cutting GHG emissions by
around 17.1% below 2005 levels (Brown & Binder, 2024). Much of this progress has been achieved by
implementing the city's 80x50 Plan, which is designed to cut emissions by 80% by 2050 through a mix of
electricity grid decarbonisation, transport electrification, increased public transport investment and demand
management initiatives, including congestion pricing (New York City, 2016).
While emissions are expected to drop in the transport sector by 2035, BAU estimates shows that current trends
are not enough to meet the city's long-term climate goals (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026b; Synapse Energy
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Economics, 2019). The findings indicate that behaviour change would need a mix of accelerated electrification
of vehicles, and increased investments in public transport services and active mobility to achieve the Paris
Agreement. A modelling study of urban car fleets has shown that combining electric vehicles with rapid,
large-scale investment in infrastructure that promotes modal shifts to active travel and public transport can help
in meeting the Paris-consistent budgets (Winkler et al., 2023)
Given their fixed and relatively short routes, transit buses are a great early application of electric vehicles. By
2040, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) promises to have replaced its entire bus fleet with zero-
emission vehicles (MTA, 2024). State initiatives have also been implemented to promote rapid electric vehicle
adoption, such as EVolve NY and Charge Ready NY, which have increased charging infrastructure and offered
financial incentives for electric vehicle adoption to consumers and organisations (New York Power Authority,
2024; NYSERDA, 2026).
In addition to its electrification initiatives, New York City has continued to boost its already comprehensive
public transit network. Residents have many options for sustainable travel, including subways, buses, commuter
rail, ferries, walking and Citi Bikes. Since 2023, MTA have increased service on 12 subway lines. In 2025,
subway ridership broke post-pandemic records multiple times, hitting 4.65 million customers on one day in
December (MTA, 2026). In addition, findings by Ashraf et al.(2021) also indicate that the development of Citi
bike infrastructure has increased both bike sharing and subway ridership
Frequent, reliable, and accessible bus services remain central to New York City's sustainable mobility strategy
and broader efforts to reduce transport-related emissions. Recognising the critical role of public transport in
facilitating modal shift away from private vehicle use, MTA implemented several initiatives to improve service
quality and accessibility. A notable example is the redesign of the Queens bus network, which simplified existing
routes, introduced 11 new services, expanded overnight operations, and improved transit accessibility for more
than 68,000 residents. The redesign also increased the availability of “10-minutes-or-better” service for an
additional 124,000 passengers, making public transport a more attractive and convenient travel option (MTA,
2026).
Complementing these transit improvements, New York City introduced congestion pricing in January 2025,
representing one of the most significant demand-management interventions in the United States. Early evidence
suggests that the policy has generated substantial environmental and mobility benefits. Within the Congestion
Relief Zone, air pollution – in the form of particulate matter 2.5 micrometers and smaller – dropped by
approximately 22%, while the city also reported reductions in traffic volumes, peak-hour delays, road traffic
collisions, and noise complaints. Additionally, the scheme has generated significant toll revenues that can be
reinvested in public transport infrastructure and service improvements (Nutt, 2025).
The city must continue to build on these policies by taking even bigger, bolder, and more ambitious actions to
reduce emissions from cars, buses, and trucks and to meet economy-wide emissions reduction targets. By
implementing policies at the scale needed to achieve 55% reductions by 2035, New York can build on this
leadership and fulfil the promise of being a national climate leader (Synapse Energy Economics, 2019).
Although Los Angeles is known for its heavy car dependency, made remarkable progress toward its long-term
environmental targets, achieving a 30% reduction in emissions compared to the 1990 baseline in 2022 (Romero,
2024). However, only a fraction of these reduction were due to the transportation sector; the majority were due
to decarbonisation in the electricity sector and building energy efficiency. BAU estimates indicates that current
trends are not enough to meet the city's long-term climate goals (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026a). Since the city
already benefits from a low-carbon intensive, renewable grid, transitioning to a decarbonised transport future
necessitates accelerating the electrification of private and public transit, and investing in infrastructure, such as
dense housing that lowers the need for mobility (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026a; The Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
2020; US Department of Transportation, 2024).
Electrification of vehicles has been the focus of the City's decarbonisation strategy, as shown in the Zero
Emission 2028 Roadmap 2.0, which was created in anticipation of hosting the 2028 Olympic and Paralympic
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Games (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2020). The Roadmap serves as the city's primary framework for
reducing transport-related emissions by accelerating the electrification of passenger vehicles, public transit
fleets, freight vehicles, and charging stations (City of Los Angeles Transportation Electrification Partnership,
2018).
The programme has made good progress since its inception. In 2023, 25% of all new vehicles sold in Los Angeles
County were electric vehicles, up from 6.12% in 2018. Similarly, the proportion of electric vehicles operating
on county roads increased from 0.75% to nearly 5% over the same period. Over 29,000 public and workplace
charging stations were installed in Los Angeles County, which is about 35% of the initial Roadmap goal of
84,000 chargers by 2028. There has also been some progress in public fleet electrification. 44 out of LA Metro's
2,000 buses were electric and approximately 7.48% of the Los Angeles Department of Transportation (LADOT)
bus fleet (City of Los Angeles Transportation Electrification Partnership, 2024).
In 2024, Los Angeles furthered its climate action efforts with the Zero Emission 2028 Roadmap 3.0, reflecting
the urgency of the climate crisis. The revised strategy aims to cut emissions and air pollution by another 25%,
by substantially scaling up the targets for charging stations from 84,000 to 129,000 and for 45% electrification
of school buses (City of Los Angeles Transportation Electrification Partnership, 2024). These are significant
steps, but Los Angeles' urban size, decentralised development and increasing population mean that electrification
may not be enough to meet long-term transport decarbonisation targets.
To further advance its low-emission mobility objectives, Los Angeles must complement its electrification
strategy with measures that encourage a substantial shift away from private vehicle use. A key priority should
be increasing public transport ridership through the implementation of the Los Angeles County Metropolitan
Transportation Authority Long Range Transportation Plan (LRTP), a 30-year, $400 billion investment
programme designed to expand, modernise, and improve the county's extensive transit network (Jager, 2020).
By enhancing service coverage, reliability, and connectivity, the LRTP can make public transport a more
attractive alternative to car travel.
In addition, continued investment in active transportation infrastructure is essential. The Mobility Plan 2035
provides a strategic framework for improving walking and cycling facilities through enhanced safety,
accessibility, and network connectivity. Expanding protected cycling lanes, pedestrian-friendly streets, and first-
and last-mile connections to transit hubs would further support sustainable travel behaviour. Los Angeles could
also leverage its relatively affordable public transport fares to attract additional riders while prioritising safety,
service quality, and passenger experience. Furthermore, expanding and incentivising shared mobility services—
including car-sharing, bike-sharing, and shared e-scooter and moped programmes—would provide residents
with flexible and low-carbon travel options (Oliver Wyman Forum, 2026a).
Between 2005 and 2023, Boston has achieved a 23.8% reduction in emissions, showing substantial progress
towards its climate goals (Boston, 2025). Half of these cuts have been achieved through state and regional actions
to decarbonise electricity generation and to cut fossil fuel use in buildings. BAU estimates indicates that current
trends are not enough to meet the city's long-term climate goals (Boston, 2026). Accelerating actions of existing
goals and targets in the sectors with the greatest potential for near-term emissions reductions.
The goal of Boston's strategy is not only to electrify vehicles, but also to shift to other modes of transportation,
such as walking, cycling, and public transit. The city aims to lower emissions in both passenger and freight
transport, as well as increase sustainable mobility opportunities, like the other case study cities. These efforts are
complemented by the work of Go Boston 2030 and Imagine Boston 2030, which combine transportation
planning, land use planning, and climate policy to foster compact, transit-oriented development and decrease
reliance on cars.
Consequently, these measures show that electrification is an important part of decarbonisation, but long-term
climate goals will also need to be met using substantial investments in public transport, active mobility and land
use planning to reduce the need for road transport. This integrated approach is part of the wider goals of
sustainable urban mobility, which posits that plans for reducing transport emissions should focus on adopting
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electric vehicles, as well as prioritising measures that lead to avoiding unnecessary trips and shifting to more
sustainable modes (Liimatainen et al., 2018; McCahill, 2021; Medimorec et al., 2021; Milovanoff et al., 2020;
Nag et al., 2019; SLOCAT, 2023).
CONCLUSION
This study has examined the low emission urban mobility systems in New York City, San Francisco, Los
Angeles, and Boston to understand their planning practices and development strategies. Evidence from the study
has shown the importance of integrated transport planning in achieving sustainable urban mobility. Success will
depend on coordinated action across sectors, sustained investment, and a shared commitment to equitable climate
action that delivers measurable improvements in affordability, public health, and quality of life.
As shown in New York, San Francisco, and Boston, implementing compact city design solutions that prioritise
access and proximity to work opportunities, community services, and other destinations tends to reduce the travel
distance of the people within those cities. In addition, compact urban designs
create favourable conditions for walking, cycling, and public transport use. Consequently, residents in these
cities are more likely to utilise sustainable transport modes such as subways, buses, commuter rail, and bike-
sharing systems. In contrast, Los Angeles' more dispersed urban structure and longer travel distances continue
to reinforce dependence on private vehicles, despite recent efforts to promote transit-oriented development and
active transportation.
Overall, the findings indicate that effective low-emission urban mobility requires a balanced integration of
environmental, economic, and social sustainability objectives. Planning and investment decisions should
therefore prioritise strategies that simultaneously reduce travel demand, increase the attractiveness of sustainable
transport modes, and accelerate the transition to clean energy technologies
Strategic Synthesis of Findings
Building on the findings of this study, this study proposes the ABC strategy as a practical guide for cities to
achieve their long-term climate obligations.
Accelerate: Cities should accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles and charging stations through
policy instruments such as rebates, and congestion pricing.
Boost: Cities should boost investment in sustainable and space-efficient mobility systems. This includes
expanding public transport networks, improving walking and cycling infrastructure, supporting bike-
sharing and shared mobility services
Compact: Cities should seek to more compact urban development patterns that concentrate housing,
employment, services, and amenities around major public transport corridors. Maintaining a strong job–
housing balance and promoting transit-oriented development can reduce travel demand, shorten trip
distances, and enhance the viability of public and active transport modes.
Future Direction
This study contributes to the ongoing debate on sustainable urban mobility by introducing the ABC Strategy as
a roadmap for cities aiming to achieve low-emission mobility and long-term climate goals. The study illustrates
how transport electrification, sustainable mobility investments, and compact urban development can help reduce
transport-related emissions, drawing on examples from New York City, San Francisco, Boston, and Los Angeles.
However, more research is needed to validate and conceptualise the proposed strategy in terms of its robustness,
applicability and transferability to other urban settings. The case cities analysed in this study are primarily
relatively prosperous metropolitan cities with well-developed public transport systems, institutional capacity,
and financial resources. The same approach may not produce the same results in other developing cities, such as
Lagos, where factors such as informal settlements, lack of transport infrastructure, poor land use planning and
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limited fiscal capacity could impact the implementation. To better understand how the ABC strategy is effective,
it is necessary to evaluate the feasibility in other cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with consideration of
how contextual factors influence its effectiveness. A realist approach can be adopted to explore the effectiveness
of the strategy and to understand the conditions involved.
Lastly, future research should focus on operationalising the ABC Strategy by creating a detailed list of indicators
and performance measures to help policy makers track progress and compare cities. This would enhance the
usefulness of the framework and enable its use as a strategic planning tool to promote sustainable, resilient and
low-carbon urban mobility systems.
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