Hybrid Energy Storage Systems for Renewable Integration: Combining Batteries, Supercapacitors, and Flywheels
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract—Renewable-energy integration into power grids is constrained by the variable output of solar and wind resources. This paper proposes a Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) that couples lithium-ion batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels and governs them with a Unified Mathematical Method (UMM) combining moving-average filtering with threshold-based cut-off logic. The architecture is modelled in HOMER Pro for the Grand Forks, ND (USA) resource profile and bench-marked against “Grid+Renewables” and “Grid+Renewables+Battery” baselines. The full three-storage configuration supplies 1 032 320 kWh yr−1 of useful energy—an increase of 77 % over the no- storage case—and eliminates 1.36 Mt CO2 yr−1 of emissions, a 245 % improvement relative to renewables alone. Valued at the Social Cost of Carbon (US$51 t−1) and the 45Q tax credit (US$85 t−1), the avoided emissions translate to annual economic benefits of US$69 000–US$116 000. The UMM reduces false cut-off events by more than 30 %, prolonging component life and enhancing overall system reliability. These results confirm that a tri-technology HESS managed by a unified control layer delivers superior technical performance, environmental gains, and financial returns compared with single-storage or no-storage configurations.
Downloads
References
Adeyinka, A. M., Esan, O. C., Ijaola, A. O., & Farayibi, P. K. (2024). Advancements in hybrid energy storage systems for enhanc- ing renewable energy-to-grid integration. Sustainable Energy Research. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40807-024-00120-4
Agajie, T. F. et al. (2023). A Comprehensive Review on Techno- Economic Analysis and Optimal Sizing of Hybrid Renewable En- ergy Sources with Energy Storage Systems. Energies, 16(2), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020642
Amiryar, M. E., & Pullen, K. R. (2017). Review of Comparative Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) for Energy Storage Applications in Tropical Environments.
Anazi, A. A. A. et al. (2023). Investigation and Evaluation of the Hybrid System of Energy Storage for Renewable Energies. Energies, 16(5), 2337. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052337
Areola, R., Adebiyi, A. A., & Moloi, K. (2025). Integrated En- ergy Storage Systems for Enhanced Grid Efficiency: A Comprehen- sive Review of Technologies and Applications. Energies, 18(7), 1848. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18071848
Arsad, A. Z. et al. (2022). Hydrogen energy storage integrated hybrid renewable energy systems: A review analysis for future research di- rections. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47, 17285–17312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.03.157
Atawi, I. E. et al. (2022). Recent Advances in Hybrid Energy Stor- age System Integrated Renewable Power Generation: Configuration, Control, Applications, and Future Directions. Batteries, 9(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9010029
Bade, S. O., Meenakshisundaram, A., & Tomomewo, O. S. (2024). Current status, sizing methodologies, optimization tech- niques, and energy management strategies for co-located utility-scale wind–solar-based hybrid power plants: A review. Eng, 5(2), 677–719. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5020038
BBC. (2024, November 8). What is the Paris climate agreement and why has Trump withdrawn? https://www.bbc.com/news/science- environment-35073297
Carbon Capture Coalition. (2023). 45Q Tax Credit for carbon capture projects.
Chen, X., Li, Y., & Zhao, H. (2020). Advanced control strategies for energy storage systems in microgrids: A unified mathematical approach. Energy Systems Journal, 12(4), 455–468.
Cole, W., & Karmakar. (2023). Cost of Projections for Utility-Scale Battery: 2023 Update. National Renewable Energy Lab.
Consilium. (2025, February 21). Paris Agreement on climate change. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/paris-agreement-climate/
Eltaweel, M., & Herfatmanesh, M. R. (2024). Optimising flywheel energy storage systems: The critical role of Taylor–Couette flow in reducing windage losses and enhancing heat transfer. Energies, 17(17), 4466. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174466
Fan, J., & Zhou, X. (2023). Optimization of a hybrid solar/wind/storage system with bio-generator for a household by emerging metaheuris- tic optimization algorithm. Journal of Energy Storage, 73, 108967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108967
Ghafari, A. (2023). Current and future prospects of Li- ion batteries: A review. Journal of NanoScience Technology. https://doi.org/10.52319/j.nanoscitec.2023.21
GreyB. (2023). 7 Hybrid Energy Storage Companies & Startups. https://www.greyb.com/blog/hybrid-energy-storage-companies/
GreyB. (2023). Energy Storage Innovation Trends 2025. https://www.greyb.com/blog/energy-storage-innovation-trends
IEA. (2025). Electricity 2025. IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-2025
International Energy Agency. (2023). Elec- tricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/70f2de45-6d84-4e07- bfd093833e205c81/ElectricityGridsandSecureEnergyTransitions.pdf
Wang, J., Zheng, Q., Qi, Y., Chen, H., Xu, G., & Chen, H. (2023). Ca-
pacity Configuration of a Hybrid Energy Storage System Incorporating Flywheel and Lithium Battery Based on Marine Predator Algorithm and Variational Mode Decomposition. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4716982
Khaligh, A., & Li, N. Z. (2010). Battery, ultracapacitor, fuel cell, and hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicles: state of the art. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 59(6), 2806–2814. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2010.2047877
Khodaparastan, M., & Mohamed, A. (2019). Flywheel vs. Superca- pacitor as Wayside Energy Storage for Electric Rail Transit Systems.
Inventions, 4(4), 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions4040062
Kittner, N., et al. (2023). Role of Long-Duration Storage in Decarboniz- ing Power Systems.
Li, X., Mittelstedt, C., & Binder, A. (2022). A review of critical issues in the design of lightweight flywheel rotors with composite materials. E+I Elektrotechnik Und Informationstechnik, 139(2), 204–
221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00502-022-01005-4
Li, Z., & Yu, C. (2023). Supercapacitor. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 227– 236). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-443-19256-2.00001-6
Lin, X., & Zamora, R. (2022). Controls of hybrid energy storage systems in microgrids: Critical review, case study and future trends. Journal of Energy Storage, 47, 103884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103884
Mahajan, H., Sharma, A., & Srivastava, A. K. (2024). Supercapacitors. In Advances in chemical and materials engineering book series (pp. 187–204). https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-1306-0.ch009
Makupe, S., & Moses, P. M. (2023). Hybrid Energy Storage System for Large-Scale Renewable Energy Penetration. https://doi.org/10.1109/powerafrica57932.2023.10363227
Maroufi, S. M., Karrari, S., Rajashekaraiah, K., & De Carne, G. (2025). Power management of hybrid flywheel-battery energy storage systems considering the state of charge and power ramp rate. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2025.3546013
M. J. (2022, May 14). Introduction of flywheel battery energy storage. Tycorun Batteries. https://www.tycorun.com/blogs/news/introduction-of- flywheel-battery-energy-storage
Mongrid, K. et al. (2019). Energy Storage Technology and Cost Char- acteristic Report. U.S. DOE.
Naderipour, A., Kamyab, H., Klemesˇ, J. J., Ebrahimi, R., Chelliapan, S., Nowdeh, S. A., Abdullah, A., & Hedayati Marzbali, M.(2022). Optimal design of hybrid grid-connected photovoltaic/wind/battery sustainable energy system improving reliability, cost and emission. Energy, 257, 124679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124679
Natividad, L. E., & Benalcazar, P. (2023). Hybrid Renewable En- ergy Systems for Sustainable Rural Development: Perspectives and Challenges in Energy Systems Modeling. Energies, 16(3), 1328. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031328
Panda, A., & Dauda, A. K. (2024). Strategizing sustainability: Inte- grating hybrid energy storage systems into renewable power grids for optimal operation. Computers & Electrical Engineering, 122, 109906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2024.109906
United Nations. (2015). Paris Agreement. https://unfccc.int/process-and- meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement
Pullen, K. R. (2022). Flywheel energy storage. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 207–242). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-824510-1.00035-0
Rakib, M. W. et al. (2024). Enhancing grid stability and sustainability: Energy-storage-based hybrid systems for seamless renewable integra- tion. European Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 8(3), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejece.2024.8.3.618
Smith, J., & Kumar, P. (2021). Simplifying energy storage management using unified mathematical models. Journal of Energy Storage Systems, 9(2), 112–130.
Zuo, W., Li, R., Zhou, C., Li, Y., Xia, J., & Liu, J.
(2020). Battery-supercapacitor hybrid devices: Recent progress and future prospects. Advanced Science, 7(10), 2001156. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202001156
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles published in our journal are licensed under CC-BY 4.0, which permits authors to retain copyright of their work. This license allows for unrestricted use, sharing, and reproduction of the articles, provided that proper credit is given to the original authors and the source.