The Role of Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital in Landscape Architecture Education: A Conceptual Paper

The Role of Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital in Landscape Architecture Education: A Conceptual Paper

Mohd Ruzaini Che Zahari¹, Ramly Hasan², Mohd Sallehudin Mat Noor³, Shaibatul Islamiah Che Man⁴

¹Landscape Architecture Department, Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

²Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia

³Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

⁴Studies of Landscape Architecture, School of Town Planning & Landscape Architecture, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam Campus, Selangor, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Malaysia Education Blueprint for Higher Education 2015-2025 outlines the aspiration to assess the current performance of students and challenges towards improving the quality of higher education. Following that, there is a need to dissect the approach towards students’ quality enhancement. Pierre Bourdieu introduced the form of capital in 1986 to disseminate the cultural influence-factor in the education sector. The cultural capital interlinks with studies in the education context which varies in multiple disciplinary and sectorial reflected in the field of focus. This paper provides a conceptual narrative towards understanding the possible influence of Bourdieu’s cultural capital in landscape architecture education. The objective is to discover the link between cultural capital and landscape architecture education through extensive reviews of literature. Past studies on cultural capital showed a positive link in education measured through students’ academic performance. However, there was a lack of study focusing on landscape architecture field. Bourdieu theorised on the unique disposition of each field and the capitals that interact in that particular field. Following the reviews, a conceptual framework is developed to explain the interrelationships among the three mechanisms of cultural capital and the academic performance of landscape architecture students. The dissemination of cultural capital into three dimensions of embodied, institutionalised, and objectified capitals points to a possible interlink of influence that cultural capital exerts towards the academic performance of students in the landscape architecture education field. Malaysian higher education and universities benefit from this paper in knowledge generation regarding the possible impact of cultural capital in architecture education sector towards improving the students’ quality and academic experience.

Keywords: Pierre Bourdieu, Cultural Capital, Education, Landscape Architecture, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

The vision of Malaysia Education Blueprint for Higher Education 2015-2025 [1] stresses the aspiration of improving the quality of graduates in Malaysia through ten shifts including holistic, entrepreneurial, and balanced graduates. The shift focuses to enhance the students’ learning experience by transformation of program delivery and design. To address the shift, it is important to discover the root of cause that can outline the improvement attributes for students in learning experience. In landscape architecture education, the quality of graduates depends on the theoretical knowledge and practical practices that university provided through their learning period.  A study by Yu [2] reported that, general education influences the way students perceive their inclination of landscape architecture preference. Landscape architecture revolves around the combination of art and science [3]. This outlines the unique distinction of the field compared to other fields. Wei et al. [4] highlighted the influence of family background in landscape architecture field. They reported that, the higher the degree level education of parents in the family, the higher the social class of the family, thus igniting better economic situation which shift the positive employment opportunities for landscape architecture graduates. Following that, family background has also been reported to become a strong determinant of educational attainment [5].  This is thus, relates with the theory of cultural capital introduced by Bourdieu [6].

The works of Pierre Bourdieu especially pertaining on education sector have been critically acclaimed by past scholars. His theory on social and cultural reproduction has been regarded as the most successful attempts to relate the intergenerational persistence of social inequality [7]. Bourdieu [6] introduced the forms of capital to encapsulate the notion of accumulation of resources one could have and its effects on the field of interaction. Basic forms of capital are the social, cultural, and economic capitals. Among these three, cultural capital has been operationalised and been interpreted the most in the education field [8]. Cultural capital can be regarded as the capital substantial to have access towards economic capital [9]. The indicators of cultural capital interlink with the educational outcomes [10]. The inferential notion that Bourdieu conceptualised is the success in the education system influenced by ones’ possession of cultural capital [11].

According to Bourdieu [6], cultural capital exists in three forms; embodied state, institutionalised state, and objectified state. The embodied cultural capital can be understood from the point of dispositions of children related to attitudes, preferences and behaviours were acquired over time though their family (parents) [12]. The institutionalised cultural capital as having resource in the form of educational evidence (academic qualification), while objectified cultural capital refers to tangible items relative to individual’s disposition of inclination [6] Cultural capital is associated with future educational and occupational achievement which leads to the accumulation of economic capital [7]. Bourdieu suggested in his field of theory by engaging the possibilities that individuals with certain education qualification (institutionalised cultural capital) have the advantage to succeed in their field. This relates with the theory of field proposed by Bourdieu [13].

Bourdieu’s Theory of Field vs Cultural Capital

The conceptual idealism that capital is the source of accumulation or intangible resource can be related with Bourdieu’s field theory. Grenfell [13] explained the theory through three analogies of field type. The first field is a football field where it revolves around competitive (social) games with different social agents apply various strategies to maintain or improve their position. The accumulation of capital is the process within and product of the field itself. The second field is the science fiction force-field. The field can be understood as a field of power which comprised of multiple social fields such as education field, economic field, art field, political field and so on. Bourdieu suggests that more than one social field can be occupied by an individual. However, their positioning in one field is different. For instance, the type of schooling individuals receive in the education field can cause a difference on how they are positioned in the economic field. The third field is the force-field in which Bourdieu has operationalised through cultural and economic capital acted as the two hierarchised poles in a social field. The position of an individual in this field is determined through a set of data on the type and volumes of capitals held by social agents (individuals or institutions). This includes the data about individual’s social origin, educational level, institution attended, social network, employment, place of residence and so on.

These three fields theory conceptualise that capitals are powerful tools to accumulate position in various social fields. This is demonstrated by Bourdieu, who in his work claimed that individuals that underwent French schooling system were those who already in possession of social and economic advantages (capital) [13]. This enables them to advance further through quality education in both social and economic fields. Bourdieu [14] highlighted the prospect of education as one of the strategies used by families to perpetuate or advance their social position. This points to cultural capital as one of the resources mentioned by Bourdieu [6] that enables individuals to occupy dominant positions in various fields. For example, through the increased volume of three forms of cultural capital (embodied, institutionalised, and objectified), the individuals are presented with larger opportunities to excel in education (increase their position in the field) given the field is appropriate. In the field of landscape architecture, the value of Bourdieu’s capitals was discovered to be significant [15].

Landscape Architecture and Cultural Capital

Landscape architecture education in university started in 1900 through the first master’s program in garden and landscape architecture established by Harvard University [16]. Since then, the field of landscape architecture has been regarded as one of the prominent fields especially in the Built Environment. The field of landscape architecture shapes landscapes environment at different scales through the process of planning, design, and management to create, enhance, maintain, and protect places to become functional, having aesthetic value, meaningful, and sustainable towards human needs and goals [17]. In Malaysia, several public and private universities have offered the landscape architecture program from diploma level to masters level. Example of these universities are Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Universiti Putra Malaysia, International Islamic University Malaysia, Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, and Geomatika University College. Graduates from landscape architecture field usually work as landscape architect, landscape designer, landscape contractor, and so on.

According to Carl Steinitz [18], a reputable Emeritus Professor of Landscape Architecture and Planning at Harvard Graduate School of Design, education institution under the landscape architecture field should identify the difference in education, style, and skill of two major groups of students. These groups are what he called, Soloist and Conductor. The Soloist are group of landscape architecture students who have a goal to master all the skills and knowledge for professional activity. While the Conductor group has capabilities to be a leader and working in a team due to their critical, judgmental, and managerial skills as compared to their design and production skills. He posited that, there should be a balance in terms of Soloist and Conductor traits in a landscape architecture student. The inclination of distinction between these two groups may stem from their parental’s influence.

An empirical study by Wei et al. [4] found that there an influence of parental education towards the employment opportunities of landscape architecture graduates. This aligns with the proposition by Helin et al. [5] that, family background is significant in education of the students. The influence of parental is reflected in the Bourdieu’s [6] form of embodied cultural capital. The augmentation of embodied cultural capital may influence the preferences and performance of children in academic. The mechanism of cultural capital interlinks with the context of education through the relationship between parents and children (students). A parental cultural capital can supplement motivational support for their children [19]. Parental embodied cultural capital is directly impacting the students’ academic performance [20]. Despite the focus on the cultural reproduction stem through the issue of inequalities and socialisation in professional programmes in higher education such as law and medicine, there is a absent of such emphasise in the subject of architecture [21].

It is posited that, the varied experiences of students in education or work may cause a barrier for them to conform into the subculture of architecture. This might be caused by the shift from the different field to the field of architecture. In Malaysia, most of students who entered the architecture school (especially landscape architecture education) were from science-stem background. The field of general science may deal with the experimental syllabus as one of the major components, while the landscape architecture field requires the acclimatisation of design, planning, and management which is very specific. Corciolani et al. [22] posited that those with less field-specific cultural capital are more inclined to follow expectations, why those with more field-specific cultural capital can provide distinction by deviating from expectations. The influence of parental’s cultural capital may stand in between the acclimatisation of those students towards the syllabus of landscape architecture.

The Impact of Cultural Capital on Education Sector

Research on cultural capital were conducted through combined operationalisation of embodied, institutionalised, and objectified, or separated from one another. Majority of the studies showed a positive significant trend for cultural capital influence in education sector through the relationship between parents and the children (students). Bourdieu [23] provided a foundation through his examination of cultural capital measured through the activities in reading, art, music, and possession of items such as TV and FM Radio, stand as a role in children’s educational attainment. There is an empirical connection between cultural capital and its impact towards education [24]. De Graaf et al. [25] highlighted the positive impact of cultural capital (parental’s reading behaviours) towards their children’s educational attainment. Parents’ advantage of higher social class (embodied cultural capital) has been found as the positive determinant to pupils’ education achievement at GSCE level as reported by [26]. Drawing from secondary data, Yamamoto and Brinton (2010) found that embodied cultural capital is also significant to predict educational performance and attainment in Japan. Through similar method of secondary data, Byun et al. [27] and Bodovski et al. [28] found the positive influence of embodied and objectified cultural capital measured through the individual or parents’ possession of materials related to high culture status towards academic and reading achievement. In Malaysia, Jimmie [29] discovered the influence of embodied cultural capital of university students related to their educational success by utilising mixed-method. Embodied cultural capital also has been found to have the strongest association with students’ performance [20] across 32 countries.

However, Kraaykamp and Notten [30] reported that despite the steady positive influence of parents’ cultural capital towards their children educational success, it is diminished over time. The cultural capital possessed by children have also been found to be significant towards their own educational performance. Breinholt and Jaeger [31] found that three aspects of cultural capital (children’s participation in performing arts, reading interest, and participation in athletics and clubs) were significant to their educational performance in United States of America. Qualitative evidence from Diouani [32] drew observation that children are able to learn English efficiently with the aid of cultural objects that are available within the children’s home environment. This relates to the objectified cultural capital that helps to provide familiarisation to the children. In China, Ren et al. [33] underlined the positive link between cultural capital operationalised through family’s cultural resources, cultural practices (embodied cultural capital) towards adolescents’ general digital skill, creative skill, and educational use of internet. The result is supported by Chiang et al. [34] who found that the cultural capital stem from fathers’ occupations and mothers’ qualifications consistently contributed to students’ academic achievements in Malaysia. Table 1 shows the summary of past research of Bourdieu’s cultural capital in education.

Table 1 :– Summary of Past Research Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital in Education

To summarise, operationalisation of embodied cultural capital was mostly used by previous studies ( [25], [26], [35], [29], [20], [30], [31], [33], [34] ) to indicate its influence on academic performance of students. Several studies ( [27], [28], [32] ) adopted the objectified cultural capital towards academic performance. There is an absence to lack of studies that used the operationalisation of institutionalised cultural capital in education. Doupona and Krizaj [36] reported the influence of institutionalised cultural capital on the socio-cultural development and success among football players. This addresses its value towards the educational attainment as well. The notion of institutionalised cultural capital has been repeatedly mentioned by Bourdieu [6] as the resource that can grant a certificate of cultural competence on individual relative to the guaranteed value with respect to culture. Society measures a person’s value based on the institutionalised cultural capital [37]. The accumulation of institutionalised among students through certificates related to academic or curriculum may grant them access towards improved academic achievement.

Although past studies were conducted in the education sector, there was an absent of study that focused on landscape architecture field in the geographical location of Malaysia. Each field carries different value of capitals [38]. Bourdieu drew the transmission of field as social spaces where members struggle to compete for status and societal validation [22]. Studies on cultural capital highlighted the importance of the resource to accumulate something that is deemed to be a sort of achievement in the field. This includes academic achievement where students struggle to compete among themselves for higher CGPA. In the field of landscape architecture education, which combines science and art, the accumulation of cultural capital is possibly one of the advantages that may set certain students apart in terms of academic achievement. As landscape architecture syllabus revolves around studio works for the biggest credit among other subjects, the importance of acclimatisation of students on the landscape architecture designing, thinking, and knowledge skills to be applied in the studio works may stem from their family and self-cultural capital. The values and volume of their parental and self-cultural capital may be attributed to their academic achievement. This study aims to outline the conceptual influence of Bourdieu’s cultural capital stems from self and parental influence towards students’ achievement in landscape architecture education measured through the past and current CGPA achieved. Conceptual framework is developed to achieve the aim.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual Framework is the identification of relationships among studied constructs in which the justification for the assumption of its relationship may come from multiple sources such as one’s prior research or established theories, or theoretical and empirical evidence found in literature [39]. To define the relationships of the constructs, conceptual framework can be illustrated through diagrams using arrows [40]. Developed conceptual framework drives this study’s direction in determining the influence of Bourdieu’s cultural capital towards landscape architecture education in Malaysia. This framework explains the possible relationship Bourdieu’s cultural capital has on students’ academic achievement. Figure 1 shows the framework.

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital Influence in Landscape Architecture Education

Bourdieu [6] conceptualised Cultural Capital as having the properties of embodied, objectified, and institutionalised. These properties are related to Cultural Capital component which influence the Academic Achievement of landscape architecture students measured through GPA score, awards obtained, and satisfaction in learning. The measurement of Academic Achievement is adapted from the Conceptual Model of Academic Success by York et al. [41]. The Grade Point Average refers to the current academic achievement of the student, the awards obtained refers to the acquisition of skills and competencies of the student, and lastly, the satisfaction of the student is relative to their experience in university and program.

From this framework, it is posited that cultural capital can be nurtured in landscape architecture education through earlier exposure of the values of each capital presented to increase teaching effectiveness. Initial investigation of students’ cultural capital can become a benchmark for the strategies to improve the students’ academic performance. As hypothesised in the framework, students with higher cultural capital may result in higher academic performance and vice versa. Hence, improvement strategies for a student’s academic performance may look into his cultural capital level as well which encompasses the level of embodied cultural capital, objectified cultural capital, and institutionalised cultural capital. This exposure could also impact the student himself to take the initiative to possess any warranted capital significant towards the improvement of their academic level.

METHODOLOGY

This paper presents reviews of literature surrounding the topic of Bourdieu’s cultural capital in the education sector. The methodology conducted included literature search and evaluation through online and offline database from article journal to chapter in book. Online database of Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Pro-quest provided the references for this study within the frame of topic Bourdieu Cultural Capital in education sector. The reviews point to a research gap specifically in terms of field-focus of Bourdieu’s cultural capital application. The discussion of the reviews is also provided followed by the proposed conceptual model. The model aims to explain the interrelationships of cultural capital through three mechanisms with the academic performance of landscape architecture students in Malaysia.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The main significance of this paper is the contribution towards realisation of Malaysia Education Blueprint for Higher Education 2015-2025. Findings from this study provide a new perspective towards improving the quality of graduates especially in landscape architecture education program. The dissemination of students’ cultural capital can become a part of attributes in the amendment of program delivery and design of landscape architecture program. Therefore, this also benefits the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) in scrutinising the actions in meeting the Blueprint before the year 2025. The improvement of the quality of landscape architecture students then, provides competitive advantage for industry players such as landscape architecture consultants, contractors, and developers. Having more quality landscape architecture graduates can enhance the industry in becoming highly impactful in AEC (Architecture, Engineering, and Construction) field. Theoretically, this study also contributes towards the expanding literatures of Bourdieu’s cultural capital by linking it with landscape architecture education field.

CONCLUSION

The action to meet the aspiration of Malaysian Education Blueprint requires collective efforts from each field of study. To improve the quality of students and graduates, it is indispensable to explore the influence-factor, which in this case, the properties of cultural capital. The literatures on Bourdieu’s cultural capital were well-published by authors globally, however, there is a lack of focus towards landscape architecture field. The unique disposition and character of the field that combines science and art provides interesting learning point in further understanding the impact of cultural capital in education. On the other hand, it could also become a catalyst to investigate the scenario of underprivileged students with less cultural capital in relation to their academic performance of landscape architecture education. The conceptual narrative provided by this study is by reviewing the extensive literatures surrounding cultural capital in education sector. The developed conceptual framework model points to a possibility of future study that incorporate empirical data to determine the relationship between Bourdieu’s cultural capital and academic achievement of landscape architecture students. Through the empirical data, it may present much better understanding especially it will be able to determine which type of cultural capital that responds significantly to academic performance in landscape architecture education. Thus, the stated absence of the empirical data hereby limits the proposition presented by this study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper is not associated with any funding.

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