Women Human Rights and Gender Equality in the Context of Core Human Right Instruments in Ethiopia: A Systematic Review
Alemeneh Getaneh Mihrete
Department of Gender and Development Studies, Bahir Dar University
Gender inequalities and human rights violations against women are a widespread phenomenon all over the world where patriarchal societies prevail. In Ethiopia, women also face numerous challenges compared to their male counterparts, regardless of cultural differences, educational disparities, economic status, and place of residence (urban or rural). Women are affected by gender-based violence such as rape and sexual harassment, trafficking, harmful traditional practices (female genital mutilation, abduction, early marriage, oval circumcision), and social and economic exclusion. In general, women in Ethiopia have a low position in different fields and at different levels. To address these serious human rights violations, various international human rights laws and instruments have been enacted and ratified, especially after the World War II. Therefore, the objective of this article was to assess and review the international and national human rights instruments that contribute to the promotion of women’s human rights and gender equality in Ethiopia. Various international conventions and declarations ratified by Ethiopia, as well as national laws such as the FDRE Constitution, the Penal Code, the Civil Code, the Family Code, and policies were reviewed with regard to gender equality and women’s human rights. In summary, Ethiopia is committed to achieving gender equality and protecting, promoting and realizing women’s human rights under the law.
Keywords: Gender Equality, Women Human Right, Human Right Instruments
Gender equality and the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women are among the fundamental human rights and values of the United Nations. Yet women around the world regularly suffer human rights violations throughout their lives, and the realization of women’s human rights has not always been a priority. Achieving gender equality requires a comprehensive understanding of the ways in which women are discriminated against and denied equality so that appropriate strategies can be developed to eliminate this discrimination (UN, 2014). Evidence shows that women have been subjected to real belittlement in male-centered culture. Unfair and stereotypical social practices, coupled with weak legal systems, have played a major role in women’s survival (Bayeh, 2015).
It is in Ethiopia that women are most disadvantaged in terms of property rights. The main reason for the lack of enforcement of women’s right to property in the Ethiopian province is usually due to the defamatory mentalities and practices that do not recognize women’s right to own property and use rural land. In addition, women do not have a regular ideal to acquire resources from their family, and control over land falls predominantly under the control of the spouse along with marriage. In addition, a woman cannot control the products of the land because she is not effectively involved in family decision making. To make matters worse, after a separation, a woman has to leave her partner’s house and go to her family to wait for another marriage without securing her offer from the marriage property (Hussein, 2014).
In Ethiopia, women have long faced human rights violations such as gender discrimination, stereotypical division of labor, lack of personality, and harmful traditional practices. To alleviate this problem, numerous international and domestic legal instruments have drawn attention to the gender dimensions of human rights. Gender-specific instruments are important because general instruments are insufficient to protect women’s human rights because they ignore women’s situation and perspective in their application. Ethiopia, as a member of the global and African community, is party to agreements and normative frameworks that protect and promote women’s rights and advance gender equality (UN Women, 2014).
Ethiopia has ratified various international conventions and declarations to promote and protect the human rights of its citizens. In particular, Ethiopia has given due attention to the protection of women’s human rights and gender equality through various laws and policies. The main international human rights instruments include the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW), the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Ethiopia also has many national legal instruments that are used to protect and promote women’s human rights and achieve gender equality. These include the FDRE Constitution, the Penal Code, the Civil Code, and the Family Code. The purpose of this article is to assess and review existing international and national human rights instruments for the promotion and protection of women’s human rights and gender equality.
This article focuses on secondary data sources. Essentially, the author has attempted to critically evaluate and review international human rights conventions, declarations, and national laws enacted and implemented to promote equality, human rights, freedom, and justice. More importantly, the author has attempted to identify specific provisions/articles that help promote gender equality and women’s human rights in the Ethiopian context. Therefore, the international human rights instruments ratified by Ethiopia and the domestic laws have been used throughout the paper.
International Human Right Instruments
In the world there were different wars in different countries. The most dangerous wars in the world were the First and Second World Wars. After the Second World War, the world community learned lessons and prepared for the probability of a Third World War. Therefore, the different countries of the world agreed on various international human rights instruments and laws that help to promote human rights and coexistence among different countries. The second change also focused on the establishment of international institutions to govern the different countries and enforce the international human rights instruments. In general, fighting poverty, ensuring peace, and development were the three key issues that the different countries shared. The following section provides an overview of the various international and national human rights instruments that either directly or indirectly address women’s human rights and gender equality in Ethiopia.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
This general declaration was adopted after World War II in 1948. The introduction states that the recognition of the intrinsic respect, correspondence, and inevitable privileges of all individuals of the human family is the creation of flexibility, justice, and peace in the world. This 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes 30 articles and gives a broad foundation to the safeguard of women against hurtful practices, cruelty, separation, and human rights. Article 2 of the revelation states, “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” Article 7 additionally expresses that “all are equal under the watchful eye of the law and are qualified without separation for the breach even with the security of the law,” while at the same time Article 16 also states “men and women of full age, without any restriction based on race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and found a family.” They are entitled to equal rights at the time of marriage, during marriage, and upon its dissolution. This declaration gives due consideration to the economic rights of men and women.
The UDHR recognizes that both men and women have the right to equal pay for equal work without discrimination of any kind. Article 23 also states that “Everyone has the right to equal pay for equal work without discrimination. Everyone who works has the right to just and adequate remuneration ensuring a decent existence for himself and his family, supplemented, where necessary, by other means of social protection.” In addition, Article 25 s recognizes that motherhood and childhood have a right to special care and support. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, enjoy the same social protection. Although the Universal Declaration has acquired the status of customary international law in its more than sixty years, as a declaration it is only a statement of intent, a set of principles to which the member states of the United Nations commit themselves in order to enable all people to live in human dignity. Ethiopia signed this declaration in 1948. Therefore, the UDHR has contributed to the protection of human rights and equality of Ethiopian women, as the FDRE constitution clearly states that all conventions or declarations ratified by Ethiopia are part of our national laws.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1966 and deals mainly with the civil and political rights of people. Ethiopia acceded to the Covenant in 1993, but not to the Optional Protocol on an Individual Complaints Mechanism (1996) and the Abolition of the Death Penalty (1989). Similarly, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex and requires States parties to “ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms are violated shall have an effective remedy (Article 2).” In addition, Article 3 provides that States Parties undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights enshrined in the present Covenant. Article 6 (5) also recognizes that the death penalty shall not be imposed for crimes committed by pregnant women.
Article 23/ 2&3 also recognizes that men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and raise a family. No marriage shall be contracted without the free and full consent of the intending spouses. Article 23/4 States Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure equality of rights and obligations of the spouses at the time of marriage, during marriage and in the event of its dissolution. In the event of dissolution of marriage, provision shall be made for the necessary protection of any children. Article 26 All persons are equal before the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the law without any discrimination. In this regard, the law prohibits all discrimination and guarantees equal and effective protection to all persons against discrimination on the grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The Preamble to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) recognizes that human rights “derive from the inherent dignity of the human person.” Article 3 declares that States parties must “ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant.” In its General Comment No. 14, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights elaborates on the obligation of States to “take preventive, promotional and remedial measures to protect women from the effects of harmful traditional cultural practices and norms that deprive them of their full reproductive rights.” Article 7.a Fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value without distinction, guaranteeing in particular to women working conditions not inferior to those of men, with equal pay for equal work. Ethiopia acceded in 1993 and these rights are enshrined in Article 41 of the F.D.R.E. Constitution.
The Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
Ethiopia ratified this Convention in 1981, but not the 1999 Optional Protocol, which defines discrimination in Article 1 as “any distinction, exclusion or restriction based on sex in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.” The Convention reaffirms the principle of equality by calling on States parties to “take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full development and advancement of women in order to guarantee them the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis with men” (Article 3).
The CEDAW consists of six parts: Part One deals with discrimination (Article 1), policies (Article 2), guaranteeing fundamental human rights and freedoms (Article 3), special measures (Article 4), gender role stereotypes and prejudice (Article 5), and prostitution (Article 6). Part II addresses political and public life (Article 7), representation (Article 8), and nationality (Article 9). Part III addresses education (Article 10), employment (Article 11), health (Article 12), economic and social benefits (Article 13), and rural women (Article 14). Part IV also describes justice (Article 15) and marriage and family (Article 16). Part V deals with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (Article 17), national reports (Article 18), rules of procedure (Article 19), committee meetings (Article 20), committee reports (Article 21), and the role of specialized agencies (Article 22). the final part VI deals with the impact on other treaties (Article 23), the obligation of States parties (Article 24), and the administration of the Convention (Articles 25-30). Thus, the Convention plays an important role in protecting and promoting the human rights of women and achieving gender equality by prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sex in all fields and at all levels.
Ethiopia ratified it in 1981, but not the 1999 Optional Protocol. Under CEDAW, Ethiopia submitted three combined reports in 1993 and two combined reports in 2002. In general, (CEDAW) provides a comprehensive framework that guides all rights-based actions on gender equality. Under this treaty, gender inequality is understood as the result of discrimination against women. CEDAW calls for equality in outcomes, not just equality in opportunities. Despite this commitment of the convention, women in Ethiopia face gender discrimination in many areas
National Legal Instruments of Ethiopia
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopian Constitution
The FDRE Constitution, the supreme law of the land, was enacted in 1995. Any law, custom, or decision of a state organ or officer that violates this constitution is invalid (Art. 9). It includes 106 articles in 11 chapters. The Constitution devotes more than one-third of its content to provisions on fundamental human and people’s rights. In addition, there are provisions dealing with the principles and objectives of national policy that either establish important guarantees or have direct relevance to the interpretation of fundamental rights. The Constitution obliges respect for and enforcement of fundamental rights and freedoms at all levels of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of the federal and state governments (Adem, 2011).
This Constitution protects women’s human rights, which means that gender equality is enshrined in the Constitution. The FDRE Constitution (1995) clearly states that “all people are equal before the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the law without any discrimination (Article 25).” In this regard, the law guarantees equal and effective protection to all persons without discrimination on the basis of race, nation, nationality or other social origin, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, property, birth or other status. From this article, we can see that both men and women are equal before the law. So the first step is that women and men are procedurally equal. This means that there should be no discrimination de jure (discrimination by law) (FDRE Constitution 1995).
Prior to the revised Family Code, women in Ethiopia were victims of discriminatory laws. The pre-2000 Ethiopian Civil Code clearly stated that the husband has the right to determine the wife’s home and residence, to cite some evidence. From this it is clear that women did not have the right to determine their residence. This meant that women had to obey their husband’s decision. This was officially proclaimed by law. Another indication was that the wife should serve her husband as a maid if the husband did not have a maid. This statement clearly showed that a husband and wife did not have the same power and right. Moreover, the civil code had given the husband the right to bite his wife if necessary. From this legal provision, we could conclude that physical violence against women was legally allowed. But today there is no discriminatory law.
This Constitution emphasizes the equality of men and women in marriage and family. Article 34(1) states, “Men and women who have attained the age for marriage established by law, without distinction of race, nation, nationality or religion, shall have the right to enter into marriage and to found a family. They shall have equal rights upon entering into marriage, during marriage and upon divorce. Laws shall be enacted to ensure the protection of the rights and interests of children at the time of divorce (FDRE Constitution, 1995). These provisions guarantee equality during and after marriage. Likewise, the Constitution clarifies that the consent of both sexes to enter into a marriage must be maintained. This is clear from Article 34/2: “Marriage may be contracted only with the free and full consent of the future spouses.”
Marital, personal, and family rights with equal rights for both sexes at marriage, during marriage or at the time of divorce; this article abolishes early marriage and marriage without consent. It can also be said that women have the right to decide for themselves whether to marry. In particular, the revised Proclamation of the Family Law of 2000 states that marriage must be based on the free consent of the spouses and that it is necessary to create a legal basis that ensures the equality of the spouses in the conclusion, duration, and dissolution of marriage. Achieving substantive equality requires considering both historical inequalities and the current conditions of women in a given context. Substantive equality may consequently require positive action by the state to address women’s specific disadvantages and needs (Farha, 2008).
In this regard, Article 35 has enlightened us detail about gender equality and women’s human rights. The sub-articles consider the historical legacy of inequality and discrimination against women in Ethiopia, and women are entitled to affirmative action to address this legacy. The aim of these measures is to give special attention to women to enable them to participate in political, social and economic life, as well as in public and private institutions, on the basis of equality with men. In this sub-article, the FDRE Constitution places a high value on women’s rights. This constitution gives women the right to overcome their disadvantaged position from the past, with the goal of equality and not superiority. This consideration made it clear how much the Constitution strives to benefit women and realize women’s human privileges.
The Constitution states, “The State shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the influences of harmful customs. Laws, customs and practices that oppress women or cause them physical or mental harm are prohibited (Art. 35/4), Women have the right to maternity leave with full pay. The duration of maternity leave is determined by law, taking into account the nature of the work, the health of the mother and the welfare of the child and the family (Art. 35/5a), maternity leave may include prenatal leave with full pay in accordance with the law (Art. 35/5b), women have the right to be fully consulted in the formulation of national development policies and in the planning and implementation of projects, especially those that affect women’s interests (Art. 35/6), women have the right to acquire, manage, control, use and transfer property. In particular, they have the same rights as men with respect to the use, transfer, management and control of land. They also enjoy equal treatment in the inheritance of property (Art. 35/7), women have the right to equality in employment, promotion, remuneration and the transfer of pension rights (Art. 35/8), to prevent harm from pregnancy and childbirth and to protect their health, women have the right to access education, information and capacity for family planning (Art. 35/9).
All these provisions show the extent to which the Constitution of the FDRE. 1995 gives emphasis to women’s human rights in the areas of affirmative action, property, marriage, participation in the formulation of national policies, employment and promotion, health, family planning education, and capacities. The Constitution thus gives greater priority to women to achieve gender equality and promote women’s human rights. Article 38 also emphasizes women’s political rights, i.e., the right to vote and be elected. Article 38(1) states that “Every Ethiopian citizen, without distinction as to color, race, nation, nationality, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion or status, shall have the following rights Upon attaining the age of 18 years, the right to vote and to be elected shall be vested in him. To participate directly and through freely elected representatives in the conduct of public affairs, to vote in accordance with law, to be elected, and to be elected at regular intervals to any office at any level of government, elections being by universal and equal suffrage and by secret ballot, and the free expression of the will of the electors being guaranteed.”
The Revised Family Code
The family, which is the natural foundation of society, should be protected by society and the state, and one of the means of protection is to regulate and control family relations by law (FDRE Family Code, 2000). This code places emphasis on marriage. In modern times, the most important aspects of marriage are social, religious, and legal. Marriage, of course, differs from other sexual relationships in that it is a legal institution. In most communities it is also a religious institution, but the legal aspect is what is essential. The fundamental basis of marriage is defined as “a personal union between a man and a woman and a biological relationship for mating and procreation.” As a social, legal, and religious institution, marriage has undergone several modifications and changes, but its basic realities remain the same (Wimalasena, 2016).
This code clearly states the forms of marriage and the essential conditions for its conclusion. According to this Code, a marriage may be contracted before a registrar. (Article 2). It states that “A marriage shall be deemed to have been contracted before a registrar when a man and a woman have appeared before a registrar for the purpose of marriage and the registrar has accepted their respective consent. The other form of marriage is a “religious marriage.” A religious marriage takes place when a man and a woman have performed such acts or rites as are considered a valid marriage according to their religion or the religion of one of them (Article 3). The third form of marriage is marriage according to custom. Marriage according to custom takes place when a man and a woman have performed such rites as constitute a valid marriage according to the custom of the community in which they live or according to the custom of the community to which they belong or to which one of them belongs. (Article 4). The point here is that all forms of marriage are legally recognized if they meet the essential conditions of marriage.
The FDRE Revised Family Code (2000) also established essential conditions for marriage and its consequences for violations. Among many conditions, consent and age are listed in articles (6 and 7, respectively). A valid marriage takes place only when the spouses have given their free and full consent (Article 6). This provision is of utmost importance to realize the choice of the spouses and to give them the opportunity to get rid of a marriage arranged by the parents, where the consent of the spouses, especially the women, is not required. The other condition is the issue of age restriction for marriage. Article 7 of this law states, “Neither a man nor a woman who has not attained the age of eighteen years may contract marriage. Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-article (I) of this article, the Minister of Justice may grant a dispensation of not more than two years for serious reasons upon the request of the prospective spouses or the parents or guardians of either spouse.” This provision prohibits early marriage, which is a major problem for girls in Ethiopia. In fact, early marriage is also a criminal offense under the Penal Code of Ethiopia. If the marriage violates the terms of the marriage, it must be dissolved. The provision states, “Notwithstanding sub-article (2) of Article 7 of this Code, a marriage contracted by a man or a woman under the age of eighteen years shall be dissolved at the request of an interested person or the public prosecutor (Article 31). Article 35 of this Code also clearly prohibits the effects of influence and violence in marriage. It states that “anyone who has entered into a marriage under the influence of violence may petition the court to dissolve the marriage.” In addition, this Code gives the spouses the same right to determine the place of residence. Article 54 of this Code states that the spouses shall jointly decide on their joint domicile. From this provision, we can conclude that both a man and a woman have the right to decide jointly. This avoids the dominant power of the man, who is considered the sole decision-maker in the family.
The other issue is the question of property, where inequalities are observed on the ground. Legally, this Code gives the same right to acquire and manage property. Article 62(1) also states that “all income earned by the spouses through personal efforts and from their joint or personal property shall be joint property.” Besides, Article 66 also gives equal rights in managing the joint property: (1) The joint property shall be managed jointly by the spouses, unless there is an agreement authorizing one of them to manage all or part of the joint property. All the above articles refer to the economic aspects of the marriage contract. This law is very important for the maintenance of marriage, especially for women who in the past could not make decisions about their own lives
For example, the report of Women’s Affairs (2004) shows that the following oppressive laws and regulations were changed in the new Family Code: (1) Raising the minimum age of marriage – in the updated Family Code, the minimum age of marriage is eighteen for both sexes, up from 15 and 18 for women and men, respectively. (2) Redefinition of assurance to be married – the revised Family Code changed the basis of assurance before marriage from a family matter to an individual matter. (3) Management of Marital Property and Family – under the Joint Code, it was expressly expressed that “real property, except for the spouse’s profits, wage rates, and salary, shall be governed by the husband.” In any case, the amended decree included a provision stating that the real property would be managed jointly by the domestic partners, unless there was an agreement allowing one of them to supervise all or part of the real property. (4) An additional ground for separation under the Joint Code, marriage by common consent, was not permitted. However, in the revised Family Code, separation is by mutual consent of the partners and is not characterized by genuine and other reasons, different from the previous ones, which were often oppressive for women. (6) The redefinition of the role of family judges under the amended law has significantly reduced the role of family authorities. Their former role as judges in separate cases has been eliminated. They are limited to seeking placement of partners. Separation cases to be handled by the courts
The Criminal Code of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia 2004
This code has contributed to gender equality and women’s human rights by criminalizing gender -related issues. This code addresses many issues related to crimes against women, such as. Article 561 on endangering the life of pregnant women and children by harmful traditional practices, Article 562 Physical injury to pregnant women and children by harmful traditional practices, Article 564 Violence against a spouse or a person living in an irregular community, Article 565 Female circumcision, Article 566 Infibulations of female genitalia, Notwithstanding this legitimate provision, women and young women are victims of female genital mutilation. This is a real violation of human rights in Ethiopia, as the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (2006) cited in Fisaha KG (2016) found that about 74% of Ethiopian girls and women are subjected to the practice of female genital mutilation. The result of his research showed that the practice varies by religious and ethnic group and is most prevalent in the eastern part of the country, particularly in Afar and Somalia. FGM is also practiced by almost all religious groups, especially Christians and Islamists.
In Ethiopia, where Christianity is the predominant religion, almost superseded by Islam, genital mutilation is slightly more prevalent among Muslims (79.6%) than among conventional Christians (69.1%). From this, we can see that FGM is still practiced regardless of whether there are universal and national legitimate instruments prohibiting the practice.
Article 587 also recognizes the crime of abducting a woman, and Article 588 in turn clearly establishes the punishment for abducting an unconscious or defenseless woman. Another serious and frequently committed crime in Ethiopia is trafficking in women. Accordingly, the Ethiopian Penal Code provides for and criminalizes trafficking in women and children in Article 597 and rape in Article 620. Women in Ethiopia are also victims of harmful traditional practices that are practiced for various reasons such as social, economic, cultural and political. To address this problem, Article 648 of the Penal Code clearly prohibits early marriage, which is one of the most common harmful traditional practices, regardless of regions and religions.
These articles show how the Ethiopian government has tried to address the problem of women in the Penal Code. Women have been tested time and again, but over time, measures have been taken to help women by achieving gender equality and considering women’s human privileges. In the event that the above problems occur under the article, appropriate measures are taken against the perpetrator. For example, Article 597 Trafficking in Women: (1) Whoever, by brutality, danger, deception, misrepresentation, kidnapping, or by giving money or other benefits to the person in control of a woman or a minor, initiates, fetches, envelops, transports, or imports a woman or a minor for the purpose of forced labor, shall be punished by imprisonment from five to twenty years and a fine not exceeding fifty thousand Birr. (2) Any person who intentionally takes or transports the victim referred to in sub-article (1) with the reason stated therein, whether by land, sea or air, or causes or assists such transfer, shall be guilty of the punishment referred to in sub-article (1). This cod exceptionally protect ladies from danger by exercising the privileges of ladies under this Article.
In Ethiopia, women are affected by sexual violence. Because of such human rights violations, women are subject to assault. Regardless of whether abortion is fundamentally illegal, there are exceptional cases that allow women to have a safe abortion. For example, Article 848 of the Penal Code identifies abortion with the public. This article unequivocally perceives the cases in which it is lawful to publish or offer for sale means or items intended to effect an abortion, or to offer its administrations openly to effect an abortion, and is guilty of a fine or arrest. Notwithstanding some of the agreed changes, the new Ethiopian Penal Code has still missed the mark in adequately addressing the issue of domestic abuse, which has some fundamental gaps (Megersa, 2014). Most importantly, the Code has not clearly defined and defined the concept of violence against women as defined by CEDAW and the African Protocol. Article 564 is the only provision with a clear reference to the concept of domestic abuse in the Code. The problem is that this article not only limits the nature of domestic relations to spouses and persons living together in an unpredictable community, but also draws on the provisions governing offenses against the individual and welfare (Articles 555-560) to ensure culpability and discipline. These scattered regulations can complicate the evidence process for victims, considering how interesting the issue is in the male-dominated Ethiopian culture (Megersa, 2014).
National Policies and Machineries in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, there are various national policies and institutional bodies to promote women’s human rights and gender equality in the country. The National Policy for Ethiopian Women (1993) is a policy that aims to institutionalize women’s political, economic, and social rights by creating appropriate structures in government agencies and institutions so that public policies and interventions are gender sensitive and equal. The policy focused on three main objectives. The first objective was to create the conditions for greater gender equality so that women could participate on an equal footing with men in the political, social, and economic life of their country. It also aimed to ensure that their right to property as well as their other human rights were respected and that they were not excluded from enjoying the fruits of their labor or from holding public office and participating in decision-making processes. The second focus was on creating the necessary conditions for rural women to access basic social services and ways to reduce their workload. The third focus of the intervention was on gradually eliminating prejudices and habitual and other practices based on the idea of male supremacy and empowering women to hold public office and participate in decision-making processes at all levels (Unterhalter et al, 2015).
The government has established an institution that is essentially responsible for implementing national policy for Ethiopian women. The Office of Women, Children and Youth has been established from the federal to the district level to monitor and track the implementation of the policy. Another policy is the Education and Training Policy (1994). This policy was formulated to address the problem of education and training at different levels. This policy sought to promote gender equality in access to education and training and to mainstream gender equality in national curricula. In addition to access, relevance, quality, and equality for girls and boys in education and training, it also includes gender-specific principles such as mainstreaming gender equality in national curricula (Article 3.1.3).
The Gender Strategy for the Education and Training Sector (2015), under the Ministry of Education, also provides a roadmap for ensuring gender equality at all levels of the education and training sector. In particular, it focuses on strengthening the collective and concerted efforts of key stakeholders and development partners to achieve gender equality in the education and training sector, eliminating gender inequality in the education sub-sector, helping women and young women in technical and vocational education acquire work skills and competencies, and improving the competitiveness and competence of female students and their enrollment and graduation rates in higher education. In addition to a range of strategies to improve gender equality (e.g., scholarships for girls, provision of dormitories, capacity building for teachers on gender -responsive pedagogy), the policy promotes a “zero tolerance culture” toward SRGBV in all school settings and surrounding communities through school festivals, community mobilization, and public and educational media; and empowering girls and boys with SRGBV prevention information and skills through expanded co-curricular modalities and modular approaches in colleges, vocational training institutions, and universities.
The policy also addresses the implementation of the Code of Conduct Against Harassment in Career Technical Education (2013) and the Code of Conduct for the Prevention of School-Based Gender-Based Violence in Schools (2014) (discussed further in 4.5.1). Capacity building on gender mainstreaming through training and dialog should also be intensified at all levels of the education system. Ethiopia also has “The National Strategy and Action Plan on Harmful Traditional Practices (HTPs) against Women and Children (2013) (MoWCYA),” which grew out of the Growth and Transformation Plan, a national strategic framework aimed at improving the country’s economic growth from 2010-2015, with targets to reduce child marriage, abduction, and FGM/C as part of the broader gender and equality goals. The strategy aims to establish mechanisms and systems to prevent and eliminate HTP, including a national communication strategy, a harmonized legal framework, improved effectiveness of law enforcement and service delivery, and improved monitoring and evaluation. The HIV/AIDS Policy (1998) also provides the framework for 5-year strategies. The current strategy (2015-2010) highlights the links between HIV risk, gender inequalities, and gender -based violence. Many of the initiatives listed in it are also reflected in other policies, such as support for girls’ clubs and SRH education in schools, improved support for survivors of gender-based violence in health, social care, police, and justice, community action against sexual violence and FGM/C (FDRE-MOH 2014).
ender equality and the realization of women’s human rights have attracted the attention of the world community. In order to realize this dream, various international, regional and national human rights instruments have been adopted, ratified and enacted. Ethiopia is doing its part to implement various international human rights conventions and declarations and has considered them as part of its national laws. Among the various human rights instruments, Ethiopia has ratified all the core human rights instruments/treaties including the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights (1993), the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1993), the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981), the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (1976), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1991) and the Convention against Torture (1994). At the national level, Ethiopia has an FDRE Constitution (1995), a Civil Code, a Family Code, and a Penal Code. In addition, Ethiopia has various policies and strategies that help promote women’s rights and achieve gender equality in general. In summary, the above-mentioned conventions and strategies need to be implemented in order to realize women’s human rights and gender equality.