Teacher Competencies and Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Achievement in Primary Education: A Conceptual Framework and Review of Indian Evidence

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) has become a central priority of primary education in India under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and the NIPUN Bharat Mission. Policy implementation, however, depends on how teachers interpret curriculum expectations, select pedagogical strategies, assess learning, respond to learner diversity, and adapt their practice. This paper is presented as a conceptual paper supported by a critical review of policy documents, large-scale learning assessments, and selected empirical studies relevant to teacher competencies and FLN in India. It synthesises evidence from the Foundational Learning Study (FLS), Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan, teacher-focused FLN studies, and literature on teacher knowledge and professional learning.
The review indicates that teacher competence is multidimensional, encompassing content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, assessment literacy, inclusive practice, communication, digital competence, and reflective professional practice. The paper proposes a revised Teacher Competency–FLN Achievement Framework (TCFAF) in which teacher competencies are linked to FLN through classroom processes and learner engagement, while professional development and structural conditions operate as enabling or moderating factors. The framework is not presented as evidence of a causal relationship; rather, it offers propositions that can be tested empirically. The paper concludes with implications for teacher education, continuous professional development, school leadership, and future research.

Teacher competencies; Foundational Literacy and Numeracy; FLN; NIPUN Bharat; teacher professional development; primary education; conceptual framework; India

1. ASER Centre. (2024). Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2024. ASER Centre. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Das, A., & Lenka, S. (2026). Teachers’ perceptions and classroom practices regarding foundational literacy and numeracy in primary schools. International Journal of Emerging Voices in Education, 2(5), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.59828/ijeve.v2i5.53 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Gandhi, H. (2021). Preparedness and understanding required for the attainment of foundational numeracy in India. Voices of Teachers and Teacher Educators, 10(2), 64–74. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Ghosh, A. (2026). Back to basics? Frontline actors and the implementation of foundational learning reforms in India [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Ministry of Education, Government of India. (2020). National Education Policy 2020. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Ministry of Education, Government of India. (2021). NIPUN Bharat: Guidelines for implementation. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2022). National curriculum framework for the foundational stage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. National Council of Educational Research and Training. (2022). Foundational Learning Study 2022. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. PARAKH, NCERT. (2025). PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan 2024: National report. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1972). The psychology of the child. Basic Books. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Satapathy, D., Sri Divya, V., & Pradhan, D. K. (2025). A study on effectiveness of FLN workbooks developed by SCERT, Odisha, India. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 51(7), 842–854. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2025/v51i72173 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• A Study to Assess the Impact of a Nurse-Led Educational Intervention on Knowledge Regarding Oral Health Among Primigravida in Selected Hospitals of Navi Mumbai
• Attitude towards Mathematics and Science in Relation to STEM Career Aspirations among Senior Secondary School Students
• AI-Driven Personalized Learning in Educational Systems: A Framework for Adaptive Learning and Decision Support
• Institutionalizing Indigenous Peoples Education in Philippine Basic Education: Development of the Integrated Institutionalization Framework for Indigenous Peoples Education (IIF-IPEd)
• Toward an Integrated Theory of Enterprise Risk Management: A Multi-Theoretical Conceptual Framework