Effect of calcination temperature on biodiesel production from palm kernel oil using a bifunctional catalyst derived from calcium carbide residue (CCR) and anthill clay (AC)

This study aims at investigating the effect of calcination temperature on biodiesel production from palm kernel oil using a bifunctional catalyst derived from calcium carbide residue (CCR) and anthill clay (AC). The specific objectives include to synthesize a ZnO-doped CaO/Anthill clay composite using CCR and anthill clay as precursors, to evaluate the effect of various calcination temperatures (650 °C to 850 °C) on the catalyst’s chemical and structural properties, to identify the optimal temperature that maximizes the density of active sites while preventing structural degradation, and to test the catalyst's effectiveness by converting palm kernel oil (PKO) into biodiesel and evaluating the final yield. The CCR and AC precursors were prepared and characterized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller. Composites of the prepared CCR and AC were formulated in ratios 1:4, 2:3, 1:1, 3:2, and 4:1 of CCR:AC and doped with 1.5 M zinc nitrate, by wet impregnation and calcined at 3 different temperatures (650 ^oC, 750 ^oC, and 850 ^oC), resulting in 15 samples (A1 – E3) which were used for the production. Ratio 2:3 catalyst (D2) calcined at 750 ^oC gave the highest yield (92.73%) and reusability studies gave an overall reduction of 27.69 % in yield across 6 cycles. Its XRF analysis gave compositions of 52.1% CAO, 10.4% SiO₂, and 7.4% Al₂O₃. Its surface area, pore diameter and pore volume were 226.9m²/g, 2.9nm and 0.2cc/g respectively. The PKO characterization results showed the PKO’s suitability for the biodiesel production.  The produced biodiesel properties aligned with ASTM D6571 and EN 14214 standards upon characterization. This study successfully synthesized a high-performance ZnO-doped CaO/Anthill clay composite from sustainable materials, identifying calcination temperature as the key factor influencing catalyst activation and structural stability and also contributes to the promotion of renewable and sustainable energy.

Palm kernel oil, Calcium Carbide Residue, Anthill clay, Calcination Temperature, Biodiesel

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