Effect of calcination temperature on biodiesel production from palm kernel oil using a bifunctional catalyst derived from calcium carbide residue (CCR) and anthill clay (AC)
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
This study aims at investigating the effect of calcination temperature on biodiesel production from palm kernel oil using a bifunctional catalyst derived from calcium carbide residue (CCR) and anthill clay (AC). The specific objectives include to synthesize a ZnO-doped CaO/Anthill clay composite using CCR and anthill clay as precursors, to evaluate the effect of various calcination temperatures (650 °C to 850 °C) on the catalyst’s chemical and structural properties, to identify the optimal temperature that maximizes the density of active sites while preventing structural degradation, and to test the catalyst's effectiveness by converting palm kernel oil (PKO) into biodiesel and evaluating the final yield. The CCR and AC precursors were prepared and characterized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller. Composites of the prepared CCR and AC were formulated in ratios 1:4, 2:3, 1:1, 3:2, and 4:1 of CCR:AC and doped with 1.5 M zinc nitrate, by wet impregnation and calcined at 3 different temperatures (650 oC, 750 oC, and 850 oC), resulting in 15 samples (A1 – E3) which were used for the production. Ratio 2:3 catalyst (D2) calcined at 750 oC gave the highest yield (92.73%) and reusability studies gave an overall reduction of 27.69 % in yield across 6 cycles. Its XRF analysis gave compositions of 52.1% CAO, 10.4% SiO2, and 7.4% Al2O3. Its surface area, pore diameter and pore volume were 226.9m2/g, 2.9nm and 0.2cc/g respectively. The PKO characterization results showed the PKO’s suitability for the biodiesel production. The produced biodiesel properties aligned with ASTM D6571 and EN 14214 standards upon characterization. This study successfully synthesized a high-performance ZnO-doped CaO/Anthill clay composite from sustainable materials, identifying calcination temperature as the key factor influencing catalyst activation and structural stability and also contributes to the promotion of renewable and sustainable energy.
Downloads
References
Ajala, E. O., Ajala, M. A., Afolabi, F. D., Ajala, J. O., Opawoye, S., & Ariyoosu, D. A. (2024). Waste-ram-fat as a Feedstock for Biodiesel Production using Heterogeneous Catalyst of Kaolinite-clay Impregnated Calcium-oxide from Chicken Eggshell. Nigerian Journal of Technological Development, 21(4), 168–179. https://doi.org/DOI:10.63746/njtd.v21i4.3104
Akpan, I., Edeh, I., & Uyigue, L. (2026). The Influence of bifunctional Heterogeneous Catalyst on Biodiesel Production from Oleochemicals. 9(10), 1864–1870. https://doi.org/10.64388/IREV9I10-1716580
Al-bayati, B. B., Özdemir, O. K., Khudhur, A. G., Özdemir, J. H., Hantosh, A. A., Al-sheikh, F., Özdemir, O. K., Khudhur, A. G., & Özdemir, J. H. (2025). Mitigation of SrO catalyst leaching and recyclability in biodiesel transesterification : comprehensive parameter optimization and characterization via FTIR spectroscopy. Biofuels, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2025.2560708
Al-Sakkari, E. G., El-Sheltawy, S. T., Attia, N. K., & Mostafa, S. R. (2017). Kinetic study of soybean oil methanolysis using cement kiln dust as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 206, 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2017.01.008
Babatunde, E. O., & Mekuto, L. (2025). Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Used Vegetable Oil using Functionalized Catalyst derived from Anthill. Ngerian Journal of Technological Development, 22(1), 1–9.
Fattah, R. I. M., Ong, H. C., Mahlia, T. M. I., Mofijur, M., Silitonga, A. S., Rahman, A. S. M., & Ahmad, A. (2020). State of the Art of Catalysts for Biodiesel Production. Frontiers in Energy Research, 8, 101. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00101
Hughes, J., Hart, A., Das, B., & Wood, J. (2026). Advances in the Application of Low-Cost , Natural Materials , and Waste-Derived Catalysts for Catalytic Upgrading of Plastic and Biomass Pyrolysis Oil. Energy Fuels, 40(5), 2338−2371. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5c05623
Ifeanyi-Nze, F. O., Omiyale, C. O., Okonkwo, I. U., Chukwu, J. C., Nwankwor, Maryjane, C., Onabanjo, A. O., Adoga, S. O., Chukwu, J. O., Chukwurah, K. F., Ebikemiyen, M., Okon, G. U., Adeleke, O. J., & Tajudeen, K. A. (2023). Biodiesel Synthesis from Waste Vegetable Oil Utilizing Eggshell Ash as an Innovative Heterogeneous Catalyst. Archives of Advanced Engineering Science, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.47852/bonviewAAES32021761
Krishnan, S. G., Pua, F., & Lim, H. (2022). Synthesis of Magnetic Base Catalyst from Industrial Waste for Transesterification of Palm Oil. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 17(1), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.17.1.12412.53-64 10 Macheli, L., Leteba, G. M., Jewell, L. L., George, S. L., & Lang, I. (2026). Enhancing waste eggshell-derived CaO catalysts for biodiesel production through synergistic oxide modification : a comprehensive catalytic and kinetic study. RSC Advances, 16, 5990–6001. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5RA06382E
Makarevičienė, V., Gaidė, I., & Sendžikienė, E. (2025). Heterogeneous Catalysts from Food Waste for Biodiesel Synthesis — A Comprehensive Review. Catalysts, 15(10), 957. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.3390/catal15100957
Malabadi, R. B., Kolkar, K. P., & Chalannavar, R. K. (2023). Biodiesel production : An updated review of evidence. International Journal of Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences Archive, 06(02), 110–133.
Mohammed, J., Aremu, M. O., & Usman, A. (2026). Synthesis and characterization of biodiesel from black date ( Canarium schweinfurtii ) seed kernel oil in the presence of green-synthesized Cu-Mn / TiO 2 nanocatalyst using central composite design approach. Recent Advances in Natural Sciences 4 227, 4, 227. https://doi.org/10.61298/rans.2026.4.1.227
Nurdina, R. A., Kamiya, Y., Hatmanto, A. D., & Pambudi, F. I. (2025). Ultrasonic-Assisted Transesterification of Tripalmitin Using Limestone-Derived CaO Catalyst. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 20(4), 672–682. https://doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.20456
Obahiagbon, K., Offiah, U., & Ahonkhai, D. O. (2025). Optimized Biodiesel Production from Palm Kernel Oil Using a Bifunctional Catalyst from Cocoa Pod and Pig Bone. Petroleum Technology Development Journal, 15(2), 1–15.
Ogunkunle, O., & Olusanya, M. O. (2026). Biodiesel synthesis from Blighia sapida seed oil : comparative modelling via RSM and ANFIS – PSO hybrid optimization. Frontiers in Energy Research, 14, 1783127. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2026.1783127
Okhonmina, J. O., Obahiagbon, K., & Oyedoh, E. A. (2026). Optimum Biodiesel Production from Palm Kernel Oil Using Heterogeneous Catalyst from Carbide Slag and Termite Hill Clay. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science (IJRIAS), 11(3), 520–543. https://doi.org/10.51584/IJRIAS
Singh, D., Singh, K., Jadeja, Y., Menon, S. V, Singh, P., Ibrahim, S. M., & Singh, M. (2025). Magnetic nano-sized solid acid catalyst bearing sulfonic acid groups for biodiesel synthesis and oxidation of sulfides. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 1397. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-84494-x
Uzuegbu, J. N., Babayemi, A. K., Ezeugo, J. O., & Umeuzuegbu., J. C. (2026). Biodiesel Production from Jatropha Seeds Using a Waste-Derived Periwinkle Shell Heterogeneous Catalyst. Chemical Science International Journal, 35(2), 19–34.
Widayat, W., Hadiyanto, H., Hargono, H., Abdullah, A., Syalom, M. N., Setiawan, A., & Philia, J. (2025). Optimization of biodiesel production from candlenut oil via simultaneous reaction using a bifunctional CeO 2 . CaO catalyst. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 14(6), 1273–1284.
Yusuff, A. S., Adeniyi, O. D., Olutoye, M., & Akpan, U. G. (2018). The potential of composite anthill-waste chicken eggshell as heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production. Petroleum and Coal, 60(1), 58–70.
Yusuff, A. S., & Adesina., O. A. (2020). Biodiesel Synthesis from Palm Olein Oil using Anthill as Catalyst. Journal of Chemical Technology & Metallurgy, 55(2).
Yusuff, A. S., Gbadamosi, A. O., & Popoola, L. T. (2021). Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering Biodiesel production from transesterified waste cooking oil by zinc-modified anthill catalyst : Parametric optimization and biodiesel properties improvement. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 9(2), 104955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104955
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles published in our journal are licensed under CC-BY 4.0, which permits authors to retain copyright of their work. This license allows for unrestricted use, sharing, and reproduction of the articles, provided that proper credit is given to the original authors and the source.